#Goodmorning
⏳36 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳227 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳316 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳2 days left APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳3 days left UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳59 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳53 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
⏳36 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳227 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳316 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳2 days left APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳3 days left UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳59 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳53 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
❤1
🔆 Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th Century CE)
📍 Founding & Rise
✅ Pulakesin I (c. 550 CE) founded the Chalukya dynasty and made Badami (Vatapi) his capital.
✅ Assumed the title Vallabheshvara and performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, asserting sovereignty.
✅ Kirtivarman I (566–597 CE) expanded the kingdom by defeating the Mauryas of Konkan, Nalas of Nalavadi, and Kadambas of Banavasi.
📍 Age of Expansion – Pulakesin II (609–642 CE)
✅ The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty.
✅ Defeated Harsha of Kanauj on the banks of the Narmada, halting northern expansion into the Deccan — detailed in Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription.
✅ Took the title Parameshvara (Supreme Lord).
✅ Conquered the Vishnukundins of Andhra and consolidated power across the peninsula.
✅ Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited his court — describing his empire as well-governed and prosperous.
✅ Maintained diplomatic ties with Khosrau II of Persia, exchanging envoys — a rare instance of early Indo-Iranian diplomacy.
✅ Ultimately defeated and possibly killed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), who captured Vatapi (642 CE).
📍 Decline
✅ Post Pulakesin II, the dynasty weakened due to internal strife.
✅ Around 750 CE, Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga overthrew Kirtivarman II, ending the Badami line.
📍 Art & Architecture
✅ Over 150 monuments (450–700 CE) survive in the Malaprabha basin of Karnataka.
✅ Major sites: Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
✅ Architectural features: blend of Nagara (north) and Dravida (south) styles.
✅ Key examples:
• Durga Temple, Aihole (6th c.)
• Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole (5th c.)
• Meguti Temple, Aihole (634 CE)
• Badami Cave Temples (c. 600 CE) – rock-cut shrines for Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jain faiths.
📍 Administration & Polity
✅ Empire divided into:
• Maharashtrakas (provinces) → Rashtrakas (mandalas) → Vishayas (districts) → Bhogas (ten-village units).
✅ Feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, and Sendrakas ruled autonomously under Chalukya suzerainty.
✅ Local assemblies managed civic affairs; mahajanas (learned Brahmins) governed agraharas and educational institutions (e.g., 2000 at Badami, 500 at Aihole).
📍 Society & Culture
✅ Caste system prevalent; prostitution legally recognised.
✅ Sati not widely practised — records mention widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka.
✅ Women in power:
• Vijayanka, queen and Sanskrit poetess.
• Kumkumadevi, sister of Vijayaditya.
• Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, took part in wars.
📍 Religion
✅ Initially Vedic Hinduism; later strong Shaiva influence (Pashupata, Kapalika, Kalamukha sects).
✅ Jainism actively patronised — Jain cave temples in Aihole and Badami.
✅ Buddhism declined during their rule.
📍 Military & Coinage
✅ Well-organised army: infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a navy for western coast defence.
✅ Coins bore Nagari and Kannada legends with motifs like temples, lions, boars, and lotuses.
✅ The gold coin Honnu (~4g) and smaller units Fana, quarter Fana (modern Hana) were in circulation.
💡 Mains Question:
Assess the political and cultural significance of the Badami Chalukyas in shaping early medieval Deccan history.
#prelims
#art_and_culture
@studytoday1
@upsc_art_and_culture
📍 Founding & Rise
✅ Pulakesin I (c. 550 CE) founded the Chalukya dynasty and made Badami (Vatapi) his capital.
✅ Assumed the title Vallabheshvara and performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, asserting sovereignty.
✅ Kirtivarman I (566–597 CE) expanded the kingdom by defeating the Mauryas of Konkan, Nalas of Nalavadi, and Kadambas of Banavasi.
📍 Age of Expansion – Pulakesin II (609–642 CE)
✅ The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty.
✅ Defeated Harsha of Kanauj on the banks of the Narmada, halting northern expansion into the Deccan — detailed in Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription.
✅ Took the title Parameshvara (Supreme Lord).
✅ Conquered the Vishnukundins of Andhra and consolidated power across the peninsula.
✅ Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited his court — describing his empire as well-governed and prosperous.
✅ Maintained diplomatic ties with Khosrau II of Persia, exchanging envoys — a rare instance of early Indo-Iranian diplomacy.
✅ Ultimately defeated and possibly killed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), who captured Vatapi (642 CE).
📍 Decline
✅ Post Pulakesin II, the dynasty weakened due to internal strife.
✅ Around 750 CE, Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga overthrew Kirtivarman II, ending the Badami line.
📍 Art & Architecture
✅ Over 150 monuments (450–700 CE) survive in the Malaprabha basin of Karnataka.
✅ Major sites: Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
✅ Architectural features: blend of Nagara (north) and Dravida (south) styles.
✅ Key examples:
• Durga Temple, Aihole (6th c.)
• Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole (5th c.)
• Meguti Temple, Aihole (634 CE)
• Badami Cave Temples (c. 600 CE) – rock-cut shrines for Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jain faiths.
📍 Administration & Polity
✅ Empire divided into:
• Maharashtrakas (provinces) → Rashtrakas (mandalas) → Vishayas (districts) → Bhogas (ten-village units).
✅ Feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, and Sendrakas ruled autonomously under Chalukya suzerainty.
✅ Local assemblies managed civic affairs; mahajanas (learned Brahmins) governed agraharas and educational institutions (e.g., 2000 at Badami, 500 at Aihole).
📍 Society & Culture
✅ Caste system prevalent; prostitution legally recognised.
✅ Sati not widely practised — records mention widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka.
✅ Women in power:
• Vijayanka, queen and Sanskrit poetess.
• Kumkumadevi, sister of Vijayaditya.
• Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, took part in wars.
📍 Religion
✅ Initially Vedic Hinduism; later strong Shaiva influence (Pashupata, Kapalika, Kalamukha sects).
✅ Jainism actively patronised — Jain cave temples in Aihole and Badami.
✅ Buddhism declined during their rule.
📍 Military & Coinage
✅ Well-organised army: infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a navy for western coast defence.
✅ Coins bore Nagari and Kannada legends with motifs like temples, lions, boars, and lotuses.
✅ The gold coin Honnu (~4g) and smaller units Fana, quarter Fana (modern Hana) were in circulation.
💡 Mains Question:
Assess the political and cultural significance of the Badami Chalukyas in shaping early medieval Deccan history.
#prelims
#art_and_culture
@studytoday1
@upsc_art_and_culture
❤8👍1
🔆 Anatomy of Article 200 — At the Intersection of Politics & Constitution
📍 Context:
✅ The Supreme Court’s judgment in State of Punjab v. Principal Secretary to the Governor of Punjab (2023) examined the discretionary powers of Governors under Article 200, addressing delays in giving assent to Bills passed by State legislatures.
📍 About Article 200:
✅ It provides three courses of action for a Governor when a Bill is presented for assent —
1️⃣ Give assent
2️⃣ Withhold assent and send back for reconsideration
3️⃣ Reserve the Bill for President’s consideration
✅ The issue lies in the vague phrase “as soon as possible”, which Governors have used to delay Bills indefinitely — stalling State governance.
📍 Recent Concerns:
✅ Growing instances in Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Kerala, and Chhattisgarh where Governors have delayed assent have created a constitutional deadlock.
✅ The Court noted that such inaction paralyses legislative functioning, undermines federalism, and violates the spirit of parliamentary democracy.
📍 Supreme Court’s Interpretation:
✅ The Court clarified that the Governor must act “within a reasonable timeframe” under the principle of constitutional expediency.
✅ The Governor cannot act as a “super-constitutional authority” by overriding the State executive and legislature.
✅ Discretion under Article 200 is not absolute — it must align with cabinet advice and federal principles.
📍 Present Dichotomy:
✅ Despite the ruling, ambiguity persists over the Governor’s dual role — as a constitutional head bound by advice vs. as an independent check under limited circumstances.
✅ This exposes tension between State autonomy and central oversight, raising questions about India’s cooperative federalism.
📍 Mains Question:
Q. Examine the constitutional and political dimensions of the Governor’s discretionary power under Article 200. How does it impact the functioning of State legislatures and the federal balance in India?
#GS2 #Polity
📍 Context:
✅ The Supreme Court’s judgment in State of Punjab v. Principal Secretary to the Governor of Punjab (2023) examined the discretionary powers of Governors under Article 200, addressing delays in giving assent to Bills passed by State legislatures.
📍 About Article 200:
✅ It provides three courses of action for a Governor when a Bill is presented for assent —
1️⃣ Give assent
2️⃣ Withhold assent and send back for reconsideration
3️⃣ Reserve the Bill for President’s consideration
✅ The issue lies in the vague phrase “as soon as possible”, which Governors have used to delay Bills indefinitely — stalling State governance.
📍 Recent Concerns:
✅ Growing instances in Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Kerala, and Chhattisgarh where Governors have delayed assent have created a constitutional deadlock.
✅ The Court noted that such inaction paralyses legislative functioning, undermines federalism, and violates the spirit of parliamentary democracy.
📍 Supreme Court’s Interpretation:
✅ The Court clarified that the Governor must act “within a reasonable timeframe” under the principle of constitutional expediency.
✅ The Governor cannot act as a “super-constitutional authority” by overriding the State executive and legislature.
✅ Discretion under Article 200 is not absolute — it must align with cabinet advice and federal principles.
📍 Present Dichotomy:
✅ Despite the ruling, ambiguity persists over the Governor’s dual role — as a constitutional head bound by advice vs. as an independent check under limited circumstances.
✅ This exposes tension between State autonomy and central oversight, raising questions about India’s cooperative federalism.
📍 Mains Question:
Q. Examine the constitutional and political dimensions of the Governor’s discretionary power under Article 200. How does it impact the functioning of State legislatures and the federal balance in India?
#GS2 #Polity
❤4👍1
🔆 Madras HC on Safeguarding Saivite & Vaishnavite Heritage
📍 Context
✅ The Madras High Court upheld the cultural value of Tevaram (Saivism) and Naalayira Divya Prabandham (Vaishnavism), calling them vital for India’s spiritual heritage.
✅ The remarks came while allowing volunteers to perform Uzhavarapani (temple cleaning) under HR & CE supervision.
📍 Key Observations
✅ Recognised the six Hindu cults — Shanmata (Saivam, Vaishnavam, Shaktam, Ganapatyam, Kaumaram, Sauram) — founded by Adi Shankara, symbolising unity in diversity.
✅ Permitted cleaning of temple premises but restricted interference with sanctum and idols.
📍 Saivite Heritage
✅ Tevaram: 7th–9th century hymns by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar praising 276 Paadal Petra Sthalams (217 in Tamil Nadu).
✅ Uzhavarapani: Initiated by Saint Appar, linking temple cleaning to spiritual purification.
✅ Vaippu Sthalams: 249 temples casually mentioned in hymns, including one believed to be in the Gulf.
📍 Vaishnavite Heritage
✅ Divya Desams: 108 sacred Vishnu temples (84 in Tamil Nadu) celebrated in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns by 12 Alvars, compiled by Nathamuni.
📘 Significance
✅ The judgment reinforces the need to preserve Tamil devotional literature, Bhakti traditions, and volunteer-based temple culture as part of India’s living heritage.
#prelims
#art_and_culture
@studytoday1
@upsc_art_and_culture
📍 Context
✅ The Madras High Court upheld the cultural value of Tevaram (Saivism) and Naalayira Divya Prabandham (Vaishnavism), calling them vital for India’s spiritual heritage.
✅ The remarks came while allowing volunteers to perform Uzhavarapani (temple cleaning) under HR & CE supervision.
📍 Key Observations
✅ Recognised the six Hindu cults — Shanmata (Saivam, Vaishnavam, Shaktam, Ganapatyam, Kaumaram, Sauram) — founded by Adi Shankara, symbolising unity in diversity.
✅ Permitted cleaning of temple premises but restricted interference with sanctum and idols.
📍 Saivite Heritage
✅ Tevaram: 7th–9th century hymns by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar praising 276 Paadal Petra Sthalams (217 in Tamil Nadu).
✅ Uzhavarapani: Initiated by Saint Appar, linking temple cleaning to spiritual purification.
✅ Vaippu Sthalams: 249 temples casually mentioned in hymns, including one believed to be in the Gulf.
📍 Vaishnavite Heritage
✅ Divya Desams: 108 sacred Vishnu temples (84 in Tamil Nadu) celebrated in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns by 12 Alvars, compiled by Nathamuni.
📘 Significance
✅ The judgment reinforces the need to preserve Tamil devotional literature, Bhakti traditions, and volunteer-based temple culture as part of India’s living heritage.
#prelims
#art_and_culture
@studytoday1
@upsc_art_and_culture
https://innovateindia.mygov.in/upsc/
The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) has launched a new digital initiative titled ‘My UPSC Interview: From Dream to Reality’ as part of its Centenary Year celebrations (1925–2025).
The portal has been created to document and preserve the personal experiences of officers who appeared for the UPSC Personality Test during their journey to becoming public servants.
The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) has launched a new digital initiative titled ‘My UPSC Interview: From Dream to Reality’ as part of its Centenary Year celebrations (1925–2025).
The portal has been created to document and preserve the personal experiences of officers who appeared for the UPSC Personality Test during their journey to becoming public servants.
❤4
🔆 Right to Die Debate under Article 21 – Mains Perspective
📍 Context:
The Right to Die with Dignity debate under Article 21 (Right to Life & Personal Liberty) continues to evolve — balancing individual autonomy, ethics, and state responsibility in end-of-life decisions.
📍 1️⃣ Constitutional & Judicial Basis:
✅ Common Cause v. Union of India (2018) – Recognised Right to Die with Dignity as part of Article 21.
✅ Affirmed autonomy to refuse life-sustaining treatment; legalised passive euthanasia and living wills.
✅ Aruna Shanbaug Case (2011) – Permitted passive euthanasia under strict conditions.
🧾 Law Commission Reports:
• 196th (2006): Procedural clarity for euthanasia.
• 241st (2012): Advocated legalising passive euthanasia.
📍 2️⃣ Living Wills & Implementation:
✅ Living wills allow individuals to predefine end-of-life medical decisions.
✅ Judicial directives ensure safeguards but bureaucratic delays persist.
✅ 2025 Living Will Case – Streamlined medical board approval process.
📍 3️⃣ Ethical and Legal Dimensions:
✅ Balancing autonomy vs. risk of misuse (coercion, consent issues).
✅ NHRC Reports (2020s) – Urged ethical frameworks for euthanasia.
✅ Courts emphasise procedural checks and family/medical oversight.
📍 4️⃣ Mental Health & Euthanasia:
✅ Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 – Recognises mental distress as a medical condition, decriminalising suicide attempts.
✅ Ongoing debate on extending euthanasia to severe psychiatric illnesses (2025 Neurodegenerative Disease Case).
📍 5️⃣ Suicide & Dignity under Article 21:
✅ Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab (1996) – Rejected suicide as a right, but upheld dignity in death.
✅ Mental Healthcare Act (2017) & Law Commission’s 210th Report (2008) – Decriminalised suicide, reinforcing compassion over punishment.
📍 6️⃣ Broader Ethical Concerns:
✅ State duty to protect life vs. individual right to autonomy.
✅ Distinction between active euthanasia (illegal) and passive euthanasia (legalised).
✅ Global precedents: Netherlands, Canada, and Belgium legalise assisted dying under strict supervision.
📍 Way Forward:
🔹 Codify euthanasia and living will provisions via a comprehensive End-of-Life Care Act.
🔹 Strengthen medical ethics boards for transparency and accountability.
🔹 Integrate mental health and palliative care within end-of-life policy frameworks.
📘 Mains Practice Question:
“The Right to Die with Dignity under Article 21 raises profound ethical and legal dilemmas. Discuss how India’s judicial and legislative responses have shaped this debate.”
#GS2 #Ethics #mains
📍 Context:
The Right to Die with Dignity debate under Article 21 (Right to Life & Personal Liberty) continues to evolve — balancing individual autonomy, ethics, and state responsibility in end-of-life decisions.
📍 1️⃣ Constitutional & Judicial Basis:
✅ Common Cause v. Union of India (2018) – Recognised Right to Die with Dignity as part of Article 21.
✅ Affirmed autonomy to refuse life-sustaining treatment; legalised passive euthanasia and living wills.
✅ Aruna Shanbaug Case (2011) – Permitted passive euthanasia under strict conditions.
🧾 Law Commission Reports:
• 196th (2006): Procedural clarity for euthanasia.
• 241st (2012): Advocated legalising passive euthanasia.
📍 2️⃣ Living Wills & Implementation:
✅ Living wills allow individuals to predefine end-of-life medical decisions.
✅ Judicial directives ensure safeguards but bureaucratic delays persist.
✅ 2025 Living Will Case – Streamlined medical board approval process.
📍 3️⃣ Ethical and Legal Dimensions:
✅ Balancing autonomy vs. risk of misuse (coercion, consent issues).
✅ NHRC Reports (2020s) – Urged ethical frameworks for euthanasia.
✅ Courts emphasise procedural checks and family/medical oversight.
📍 4️⃣ Mental Health & Euthanasia:
✅ Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 – Recognises mental distress as a medical condition, decriminalising suicide attempts.
✅ Ongoing debate on extending euthanasia to severe psychiatric illnesses (2025 Neurodegenerative Disease Case).
📍 5️⃣ Suicide & Dignity under Article 21:
✅ Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab (1996) – Rejected suicide as a right, but upheld dignity in death.
✅ Mental Healthcare Act (2017) & Law Commission’s 210th Report (2008) – Decriminalised suicide, reinforcing compassion over punishment.
📍 6️⃣ Broader Ethical Concerns:
✅ State duty to protect life vs. individual right to autonomy.
✅ Distinction between active euthanasia (illegal) and passive euthanasia (legalised).
✅ Global precedents: Netherlands, Canada, and Belgium legalise assisted dying under strict supervision.
📍 Way Forward:
🔹 Codify euthanasia and living will provisions via a comprehensive End-of-Life Care Act.
🔹 Strengthen medical ethics boards for transparency and accountability.
🔹 Integrate mental health and palliative care within end-of-life policy frameworks.
📘 Mains Practice Question:
“The Right to Die with Dignity under Article 21 raises profound ethical and legal dilemmas. Discuss how India’s judicial and legislative responses have shaped this debate.”
#GS2 #Ethics #mains
❤2👍1
Part IX
Article 243 Definitions
Article 243A Gram Sabha (A for apple sbne gaanv me paarha h means gram = gram sabha)
Article 243B Constitution of Panchayats ( बनना panchayat ka )
Article 243C Composition of Panchayats(c= composition )
Article 243D. Reservation of seats ( apna दबदबा hai kuch seats reserve kr li)
Article 243E Duration of Panchayats, etc ( Expiry date = duration)
Article 243F. Disqualifications for membership (F = fut lo yahan se)
Article 243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats. ( G = gun lekr chalne wala jiske pass power h)
Article 243H. Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats( haftaaa nikaal = tax impose)
Article 243I Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position ( rat lo 243I finance Commission hai)
Article 243J Audit of accounts of Panchayats ( J = जांच krna = audit)
Article 243K. Elections to the Panchayats ( kon ayega kon krwayega = state election commission )
Article 243L Application to Union territories ( lieutenant governor kaha hote ?? Are UT me hotee)
Article 243M Part not to apply to certain areas ( Mna kr dia us area ne yaha apply mt krna )
Article 243N Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats( naya nhi ayega❌️ wahi continue rhega)
Article 243O Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters ( oo helloo don't interfere here go and study )
Same for IXA.
👌11❤9😁2👍1
#Goodmorning
⏳35 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳226 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳315 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳ Tommorow APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳2 days left UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳58 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳52 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
⏳35 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳226 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳315 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳ Tommorow APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳2 days left UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳58 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳52 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
❤1
The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the 2025 #NobelPeacePrize to Maria Corina Machado for her tireless work promoting democratic rights for the people of Venezuela and for her struggle to achieve a just and peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy
❤13👌2
Forwarded from UPSC update
WR-RollList-CAPF-25-Engl-101025 (1).pdf
214.1 KB
🔆 Koeppen’s Classification of Climate 🌦️
📍 Overview:
✅ The Koeppen Climate Classification, developed by Vladimir Koeppen, is the most widely used empirical system for classifying the world’s climates.
✅ It is called empirical because it is based on observed data (temperature, rainfall, vegetation) rather than theoretical logic.
📘 Basis of Classification:
🌿 Koeppen identified a close relationship between climate and natural vegetation.
🌡️ He selected specific temperature and precipitation thresholds corresponding to vegetation zones and used them to classify climates.
📍 Major Climatic Groups:
Koeppen recognized five major climate groups —
🔸 A, C, D, E → Humid climates (classified mainly by temperature)
🔸 B → Dry climates (classified mainly by precipitation)
📍 Symbols & Subdivisions:
🌦️ Seasonality of Dryness (small letters):
• f → No dry season
• m → Monsoon climate
• w → Winter dry season
• s → Summer dry season
🌡️ Temperature Severity (small letters):
• a, b, c, d → Indicate progressively cooler climates or shorter summers
🏜️ Subtypes under Dry (B) Climates (capital letters):
• S → Steppe (Semi-arid)
• W → Desert (Arid)
#Geography
📍 Overview:
✅ The Koeppen Climate Classification, developed by Vladimir Koeppen, is the most widely used empirical system for classifying the world’s climates.
✅ It is called empirical because it is based on observed data (temperature, rainfall, vegetation) rather than theoretical logic.
📘 Basis of Classification:
🌿 Koeppen identified a close relationship between climate and natural vegetation.
🌡️ He selected specific temperature and precipitation thresholds corresponding to vegetation zones and used them to classify climates.
📍 Major Climatic Groups:
Koeppen recognized five major climate groups —
🔸 A, C, D, E → Humid climates (classified mainly by temperature)
🔸 B → Dry climates (classified mainly by precipitation)
📍 Symbols & Subdivisions:
🌦️ Seasonality of Dryness (small letters):
• f → No dry season
• m → Monsoon climate
• w → Winter dry season
• s → Summer dry season
🌡️ Temperature Severity (small letters):
• a, b, c, d → Indicate progressively cooler climates or shorter summers
🏜️ Subtypes under Dry (B) Climates (capital letters):
• S → Steppe (Semi-arid)
• W → Desert (Arid)
#Geography
❤1👍1
🔆 Cistanthe longiscapa (Pata de Guanaco)
✅ Habitat: Native to the Atacama Desert, Chile — one of the driest places on Earth.
✅ Growth Cycle: Annual herb that blooms and completes its life cycle after sporadic rainfall.
✅ Adaptation: Uses Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) — opens stomata at night to absorb CO₂ and store it as malic acid, conserving water for desert survival.
#Environment
✅ Habitat: Native to the Atacama Desert, Chile — one of the driest places on Earth.
✅ Growth Cycle: Annual herb that blooms and completes its life cycle after sporadic rainfall.
✅ Adaptation: Uses Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) — opens stomata at night to absorb CO₂ and store it as malic acid, conserving water for desert survival.
#Environment
❤8
#Goodmorning
⏳34 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳225 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳314 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳ All the best APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳ Tomorrow UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳57 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳51 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
⏳34 days left IfoS mains 16 Nov
⏳225 days left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳314 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]
⏳ All the best APSC mains 11 Oct
⏳ Tomorrow UPPSC /OPSC prelims 12 Oct
⏳57 days left PPSC prelims 7 dec
⏳51 days left JKPSC prelims/CAT/EPFO 30 Nov
#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability
👍3
🔆 Polar Silk Road
✅ Initiative by: China
✅ Introduced in: Arctic Policy White Paper (2018)
✅ Route: Arctic sea lanes linking North America, East Asia, and Western Europe — offering shorter, cost-effective transport.
✅ Update: Chinese ship began voyage via Arctic Ocean from Ningbo-Zhoushan, launching the Polar Silk Route.
#IR #Geography
✅ Initiative by: China
✅ Introduced in: Arctic Policy White Paper (2018)
✅ Route: Arctic sea lanes linking North America, East Asia, and Western Europe — offering shorter, cost-effective transport.
✅ Update: Chinese ship began voyage via Arctic Ocean from Ningbo-Zhoushan, launching the Polar Silk Route.
#IR #Geography
❤11👍2