🔆 Important Volcanoes
📍 Mount Yasur
✅ Location: Tanna Island, Vanuatu
✅ Details: One of the world’s most accessible active volcanoes; continuous activity.
📍 Mount Ruapehu
✅ Location: North Island, New Zealand
✅ Details: Active stratovolcano; highest point in the North Island.
📍 Mount Tavurvur
✅ Location: East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
✅ Details: Active volcano; part of the Rabaul caldera.
📍 Mount Yasur
✅ Location: Tanna Island, Vanuatu
✅ Details: One of the world’s most accessible active volcanoes; continuous activity.
📍 Mount Ruapehu
✅ Location: North Island, New Zealand
✅ Details: Active stratovolcano; highest point in the North Island.
📍 Mount Tavurvur
✅ Location: East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
✅ Details: Active volcano; part of the Rabaul caldera.
🔆 Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica
✅ Location:
• The Ellsworth Mountains are situated in West Antarctica.
✅ Key Feature:
• These mountains include Mount Vinson, the highest peak in Antarctica, standing at 4,892 meters.
#EllsworthMountains #MountVinson #Antarctica #Geography
✅ Location:
• The Ellsworth Mountains are situated in West Antarctica.
✅ Key Feature:
• These mountains include Mount Vinson, the highest peak in Antarctica, standing at 4,892 meters.
#EllsworthMountains #MountVinson #Antarctica #Geography
🔆 Hydrology of the Brahmaputra: Key Insights
📍 Origin & Flow
The Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, enters India as Siang in Arunachal, and flows as Brahmaputra in Assam before becoming Jamuna in Bangladesh.
📍 Rainfall Dependency
Arunachal contributes 42.57% of India’s Brahmaputra basin rainfall; Tibet contributes <20% of water yield in India.
📍 Chinese Projects
China’s upstream dams, including the massive Medog dam and South-North Water Diversion Project, pose concerns but lie upstream of Arunachal, limiting major impact.
📍 Indian Strategy
India must prepare a long-term river strategy focusing on real-time data, resilience, and multilateral diplomacy to counter upstream threats.
📍 Origin & Flow
The Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, enters India as Siang in Arunachal, and flows as Brahmaputra in Assam before becoming Jamuna in Bangladesh.
📍 Rainfall Dependency
Arunachal contributes 42.57% of India’s Brahmaputra basin rainfall; Tibet contributes <20% of water yield in India.
📍 Chinese Projects
China’s upstream dams, including the massive Medog dam and South-North Water Diversion Project, pose concerns but lie upstream of Arunachal, limiting major impact.
📍 Indian Strategy
India must prepare a long-term river strategy focusing on real-time data, resilience, and multilateral diplomacy to counter upstream threats.
🔆 Post: Jammu–Srinagar Rail Link & Chenab Bridge Highlights
📍 Project Overview
✅ 272 km rail line from Udhampur to Baramulla
✅ Divided into 4 sections with 943 bridges and 36 tunnels
✅ Includes the Chenab Bridge & Anji Khad Bridge
📍 Chenab Bridge
✅ Tallest railway bridge in the world: 359m above riverbed
✅ Length: 1.315 km, Arch span: 467m, 17 spans
✅ Cost: ₹1,486 crore, Steel used: 28,660 MT
✅ Built to withstand Zone V earthquakes & wind speeds up to 266 km/h
✅ Design life: 120 years
📍 Anji Khad Bridge
✅ India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge
📍 Operations
✅ Vande Bharat Express to run 6 days/week
✅ Expected full Delhi–Srinagar service by Sept 2024
📍 Project Overview
✅ 272 km rail line from Udhampur to Baramulla
✅ Divided into 4 sections with 943 bridges and 36 tunnels
✅ Includes the Chenab Bridge & Anji Khad Bridge
📍 Chenab Bridge
✅ Tallest railway bridge in the world: 359m above riverbed
✅ Length: 1.315 km, Arch span: 467m, 17 spans
✅ Cost: ₹1,486 crore, Steel used: 28,660 MT
✅ Built to withstand Zone V earthquakes & wind speeds up to 266 km/h
✅ Design life: 120 years
📍 Anji Khad Bridge
✅ India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge
📍 Operations
✅ Vande Bharat Express to run 6 days/week
✅ Expected full Delhi–Srinagar service by Sept 2024
🔆 Mineral Belts of India – Areas & Potentials
📍 The North Eastern Peninsular Belt
✅ Area/Region: Extends from the Aravalli range in Rajasthan in the west to the Chotanagpur Plateau in Jharkhand and Odisha in the east.
✅ Potentials: Rich deposits of coal, iron ore, copper, lead, and zinc.
📍 The South Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in the states of Karnataka, Goa, and parts of Maharashtra.
✅ Potentials: Abundant reserves of iron ore, manganese, limestone, and bauxite.
📍 The North Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Spread across Rajasthan and Gujarat.
✅ Potentials: Deposits of limestone, marble, gypsum, rock phosphate, lignite, and bentonite.
📍 The Central Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
✅ Potentials:
• Coal: Substantial reserves, key for India’s energy needs.
• Iron Ore: Supports the iron and steel industry.
• Bauxite, Limestone, and Dolomite: Crucial for aluminium production, cement manufacturing, and construction materials.
📍 The Southern Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
✅ Potentials: Rich deposits of iron ore, bauxite, and limestone.
📍 The Eastern Belt
✅ Area/Region: Extends through Odisha, West Bengal, and parts of Jharkhand.
✅ Potentials: Vast reserves of iron ore, coal, manganese, and chromite.
📍 The Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
✅ Potentials: Deposits of manganese, bauxite, limestone, and gypsum.
📍 The North Eastern Peninsular Belt
✅ Area/Region: Extends from the Aravalli range in Rajasthan in the west to the Chotanagpur Plateau in Jharkhand and Odisha in the east.
✅ Potentials: Rich deposits of coal, iron ore, copper, lead, and zinc.
📍 The South Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in the states of Karnataka, Goa, and parts of Maharashtra.
✅ Potentials: Abundant reserves of iron ore, manganese, limestone, and bauxite.
📍 The North Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Spread across Rajasthan and Gujarat.
✅ Potentials: Deposits of limestone, marble, gypsum, rock phosphate, lignite, and bentonite.
📍 The Central Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
✅ Potentials:
• Coal: Substantial reserves, key for India’s energy needs.
• Iron Ore: Supports the iron and steel industry.
• Bauxite, Limestone, and Dolomite: Crucial for aluminium production, cement manufacturing, and construction materials.
📍 The Southern Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
✅ Potentials: Rich deposits of iron ore, bauxite, and limestone.
📍 The Eastern Belt
✅ Area/Region: Extends through Odisha, West Bengal, and parts of Jharkhand.
✅ Potentials: Vast reserves of iron ore, coal, manganese, and chromite.
📍 The Western Belt
✅ Area/Region: Located in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
✅ Potentials: Deposits of manganese, bauxite, limestone, and gypsum.
🔆 Modern Methods of Water Management
✅ Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting rainwater is a very efficient way to replenish the groundwater table and save natural water.
✅ Pressure Reducing Valves: In a hydraulic system, a pressure-reducing valve essentially regulates the amount of pressure. These valves guarantee that the water level to be used is predetermined.
✅ Water metering: Installing water metres to track water usage in both residential and business buildings is another effective technique to reduce water waste. It can aid in leak detection.
✅ Greywater recycling: It is a technique for reusing used and wastewater from showers, washing machines, and kitchen sinks for things like flushing toilets and watering plants.
✅ Water-efficient Accessories: New developments are pushing the limits of water saving without compromising usage patterns, such as altered spray patterns in taps and showers and enhanced flush pressure in toilets.
✅ Fog Harvesting: Exploring fog harvesting technologies in hilly regions. Specialized mesh structures capture moisture droplets from fog, providing a valuable water source in areas with limited rainfall. That have been implemented in countries like Chile, Morocco, and Peru.
#gs1 #Geography #mains
Join @Mapping_prelims_mains
✅ Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting rainwater is a very efficient way to replenish the groundwater table and save natural water.
✅ Pressure Reducing Valves: In a hydraulic system, a pressure-reducing valve essentially regulates the amount of pressure. These valves guarantee that the water level to be used is predetermined.
✅ Water metering: Installing water metres to track water usage in both residential and business buildings is another effective technique to reduce water waste. It can aid in leak detection.
✅ Greywater recycling: It is a technique for reusing used and wastewater from showers, washing machines, and kitchen sinks for things like flushing toilets and watering plants.
✅ Water-efficient Accessories: New developments are pushing the limits of water saving without compromising usage patterns, such as altered spray patterns in taps and showers and enhanced flush pressure in toilets.
✅ Fog Harvesting: Exploring fog harvesting technologies in hilly regions. Specialized mesh structures capture moisture droplets from fog, providing a valuable water source in areas with limited rainfall. That have been implemented in countries like Chile, Morocco, and Peru.
#gs1 #Geography #mains
Join @Mapping_prelims_mains
🔆 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) & Indian Monsoon 🌧️
📍 What is IOD?
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate phenomenon caused by temperature differences between the eastern (Bay of Bengal) and western (Arabian Sea) regions of the Indian Ocean. It greatly impacts the Indian monsoon and rainfall distribution.
🔹 Positive IOD:
✅ Warmer West, Cooler East - Warmer sea temperatures in the west and cooler in the east create favorable conditions for rainfall.
✅ Enhanced Monsoon - Strengthens monsoon circulation, increasing rainfall in central India.
✅ Increased Rainfall - Observed above-average rainfall in central India during positive IOD years.
🔻 Negative IOD:
✅ Cooler West, Warmer East - Temperature reversal leads to a weaker monsoon.
✅ Weaker Monsoon - Disrupts monsoon circulation, causing a delayed or weak monsoon.
✅ Drought Risk - Potential drought conditions, particularly in central and eastern India, with below-average rainfall.
#Geography
📍 What is IOD?
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate phenomenon caused by temperature differences between the eastern (Bay of Bengal) and western (Arabian Sea) regions of the Indian Ocean. It greatly impacts the Indian monsoon and rainfall distribution.
🔹 Positive IOD:
✅ Warmer West, Cooler East - Warmer sea temperatures in the west and cooler in the east create favorable conditions for rainfall.
✅ Enhanced Monsoon - Strengthens monsoon circulation, increasing rainfall in central India.
✅ Increased Rainfall - Observed above-average rainfall in central India during positive IOD years.
🔻 Negative IOD:
✅ Cooler West, Warmer East - Temperature reversal leads to a weaker monsoon.
✅ Weaker Monsoon - Disrupts monsoon circulation, causing a delayed or weak monsoon.
✅ Drought Risk - Potential drought conditions, particularly in central and eastern India, with below-average rainfall.
#Geography
🔆 Pollution Dome
📍 Definition
✅ Formed when unfavorable atmospheric conditions trap pollutants in urban areas, causing smog buildup.
📍 Contributing Factors
✅ Stagnant Air: Calm winds trap pollutants.
✅ Temperature Inversions: Warm air traps cooler air, preventing vertical dispersion.
✅ Geographic Bottlenecks: Mountains/valleys restrict air movement, trapping pollutants.
📍 Additional Factors
✅ Industrial Activity: Emissions from factories, power plants, and vehicles worsen pollution in stagnant air.
✅ Unfavorable Weather Patterns: Systems like anticyclones limit atmospheric mixing, trapping pollutants closer to the ground.
#Geography
#environment
📍 Definition
✅ Formed when unfavorable atmospheric conditions trap pollutants in urban areas, causing smog buildup.
📍 Contributing Factors
✅ Stagnant Air: Calm winds trap pollutants.
✅ Temperature Inversions: Warm air traps cooler air, preventing vertical dispersion.
✅ Geographic Bottlenecks: Mountains/valleys restrict air movement, trapping pollutants.
📍 Additional Factors
✅ Industrial Activity: Emissions from factories, power plants, and vehicles worsen pollution in stagnant air.
✅ Unfavorable Weather Patterns: Systems like anticyclones limit atmospheric mixing, trapping pollutants closer to the ground.
#Geography
#environment
Topper's recommended mains value addition
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Forwarded from CSE EXAM ( UPSC prelims mains) CAPF
CSP-2025-WR-NameList-Engl-110625.pdf
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Name Wise 2025 Pre
Forwarded from Environment & Ecology UPSC prelims mains
🔆 Oil Pollution
📍 Examples
✅ Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010): Largest marine oil spill in Gulf of Mexico.
✅ Ennore Oil Spill (2017): Collision off Chennai coast, impacting marine life and fishermen.
✅ MV Wakashio Spill (2020): Ship ran aground off Mauritius, spilling oil in a biodiversity-rich area.
📍 Causes
✅ Oil spills from tankers, offshore rigs.
✅ Leakages from drilling, transportation.
✅ Ballast water discharge, pipeline ruptures.
📍 Consequences
✅ Environmental: Marine life death, long-term damage to ecosystems.
✅ Economic: Livelihood loss, high cleanup costs.
✅ Health Hazards: Skin disorders, respiratory issues, contamination of seafood.
📍 Steps Taken
✅ International: MARPOL Convention, OPRC, IMO standards.
✅ India: NOS-DCP, INCOIS oil spill trajectory model.
📍 Way Forward
✅ Enforce safety regulations, improve warning systems, develop response capacity, promote bioremediation techniques.
#environment #mains
Join @PIB_UPSC
@upsc_4_environment
📍 Examples
✅ Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010): Largest marine oil spill in Gulf of Mexico.
✅ Ennore Oil Spill (2017): Collision off Chennai coast, impacting marine life and fishermen.
✅ MV Wakashio Spill (2020): Ship ran aground off Mauritius, spilling oil in a biodiversity-rich area.
📍 Causes
✅ Oil spills from tankers, offshore rigs.
✅ Leakages from drilling, transportation.
✅ Ballast water discharge, pipeline ruptures.
📍 Consequences
✅ Environmental: Marine life death, long-term damage to ecosystems.
✅ Economic: Livelihood loss, high cleanup costs.
✅ Health Hazards: Skin disorders, respiratory issues, contamination of seafood.
📍 Steps Taken
✅ International: MARPOL Convention, OPRC, IMO standards.
✅ India: NOS-DCP, INCOIS oil spill trajectory model.
📍 Way Forward
✅ Enforce safety regulations, improve warning systems, develop response capacity, promote bioremediation techniques.
#environment #mains
Join @PIB_UPSC
@upsc_4_environment
🔆 Key Glaciers of Antarctica: Features & Significance
✅ Lambert Glacier (East Antarctica):
• World’s largest glacier by volume and length (over 400 km long).
• Flows into the Amery Ice Shelf.
• Vital for studying ice dynamics and climate change.
• Major drainage outlet for the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.
✅ Pine Island Glacier (West Antarctica):
• Rapidly thinning and retreating glacier.
• Part of the Amundsen Sea Embayment.
• Key contributor to global sea-level rise.
• Monitored closely for ice sheet instability.
✅ Thwaites Glacier (West Antarctica):
• Known as the “Doomsday Glacier” for its potential to cause sea-level rise.
• Melting rapidly due to warm ocean currents.
• Critical for understanding future sea-level changes.
• Subject of extensive international research collaborations.
#Glaciers #Antarctica #ClimateChange #SeaLevelRise
✅ Lambert Glacier (East Antarctica):
• World’s largest glacier by volume and length (over 400 km long).
• Flows into the Amery Ice Shelf.
• Vital for studying ice dynamics and climate change.
• Major drainage outlet for the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.
✅ Pine Island Glacier (West Antarctica):
• Rapidly thinning and retreating glacier.
• Part of the Amundsen Sea Embayment.
• Key contributor to global sea-level rise.
• Monitored closely for ice sheet instability.
✅ Thwaites Glacier (West Antarctica):
• Known as the “Doomsday Glacier” for its potential to cause sea-level rise.
• Melting rapidly due to warm ocean currents.
• Critical for understanding future sea-level changes.
• Subject of extensive international research collaborations.
#Glaciers #Antarctica #ClimateChange #SeaLevelRise