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#Third Buddhist Council

Venue: Pataliputra

Year: 250 BC.

King: Ashoka 

Presiding priest: Mogaliputta Tissa (Upagupta).

Its objective was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism and to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage.

The responses to doctrinal questions and disputes formulated at the Third Council were recorded by Moggaliputta Tissa in the Kathavatthu, one of the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Resulted in:

Made Sthaviravada School as an orthodox school – believed that the past, present, and future are all simultaneous. They may have contributed some formative influence to Mahayana.

Codification of Abhidhamma Pitaka, dealing with Buddhist philosophy written in Pali.

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#Fourth Buddhist Council:

Venue: Kundalavana, Kashmir.

Year: 72 AD

King: Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty), was a patron of Buddhism and was instrumental in spreading the religion in north-western borders of India.

Presiding Priest: Vasumitra; deputed by Asvaghosha.

The fourth Buddhist Council had to deal with a serious conflict between the Sarvasthivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara.

Resulted in:

Sarvasthivada doctrines were organized into three large commentaries on the Pitakas.

Final division of Buddhism into Mahayana & Hinayana sects.

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#Jain_Council

First Jain Council

Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.

Second Jain Council

Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.

Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

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#Royal_patrons_of_Jainism

•South India

Kadamba dynasty
Ganga dynasty
Amoghavarsha
Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)

•North India

Bimbisara
Ajatasatru
Chandragupta Maurya
Bindusara
Harshavardhana
Ama
Bindusara
Kharavela

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How is Jainism different from Buddhism?

Jainism recognised the existence of god while Buddhism did not.

Jainism does not condemn the varna system while Buddhism does.

Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism does not.

Buddhism prescribes a middle path while Jainism advocates its followers to live the life of complete austerity.

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#Maize

Geographical Conditions of Growth:
It is a crop of semi-arid climate and is used both as food and fodder.
A temperature of 21°C- 27°C and 50-100cm rainfall is suitable for its cultivation.

Alternate spells of rains and sunny weather are ideal for maize.

It is a Kharif Crop but in some states like Bihar, it is grown in the rabi season also.

It grows well in alluvial and red soils with good drainage. It can also be grown in mountainous soils.

Important Producing Areas:
It is grown on 3.6% of the total sown area in the country.
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhr Pradesh

Important Varieties: Sartaz, Ganga, Deccan-103, Deccan-105, Dhawal, Prabhat, Arun, Kiran etc.

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#Millets:

Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though these are known as coarse grains, these have high nutritional value. These are grown on 16.5% of the total sown area in the country.

#Bajra

Geographical Conditions of Growth:
It thrives in areas of warm, dry climate.

It requires an annual rainfall of 45cm and temperature ranging between 25 to 30°C.

It grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.

Important Producing Areas:
Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

#Jowar

Geographical Conditions of Growth:
It is a rainfed crop mostly grown in moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.

This crop requires moderate rainfall of 30-100cms and high temperatures ranging from 20 to 32°C.

Both excessive moisture and prolonged drought are harmful.
Well drained light soils are ideal.

Important Producing Areas:
It is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production.

It is cultivated as the major food crop in semi-arid areas of the central and south India.

In north India, Jowar is mainly a Kharif crop whereas it is sown as both Kharif and Rabi in the southern states.

Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
India is the largest producer of jowar in the world.

#Ragi

Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro-nutrients and roughage.

Geographical Conditions of Growth: It is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.

Important Producing Areas: Karnataka is the largest producer of Ragi followed by Tamil Nadu. Other states are ragi are Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.

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#World_Bank

Founded at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development—soon called the World Bank—has expanded to a closely associated group of five development institutions.

•International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) provides loans, credits, and grants.

•International Development Association (IDA) provides low- or no-interest loans to low-income countries.

•The International Finance Corporation (IFC) provides investment, advice, and asset management services to companies and governments.

•The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) insures lenders and investors against political risk such as war.

•The International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) settles investment-disputes between investors and countries.
India is not a member of ICSID.

Recently, the World Bank has released new Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) for reference year 2017, under International Comparison Program (ICP) that adjusts for differences in the cost of living across economies of the world.

It has also developed the Logistics Performance Index.

Reports Published by World Bank:
•Human Capital Index Report
•Global Economic Prospects
•Ease of Doing Business
•South Asia Economic Focus Report
•Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report
•World Development Report

Projects Supported by the World Bank:
•National Hydrology Project
•Strengthening Teaching-Learning and Results for States (STARS) Project
•National Nutrition Mission
•National Mission for Clean Ganga
•National Biopharma Mission
•Atal Bhujal Yojana

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#Cheras aka Keralaputras

Controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.

Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.

The emblem of Cheras was “bow and arrow”.

The Pugalur inscription of the 1st century AD has reference to three generations of Chera rulers.

The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also built a temple of Augustus there.

The greatest ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera or the Good Chera, who belonged to the 2nd century A.D.

√His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with details about his expedition to the Himalayas where he defeated many north Indian rulers.

√Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.
He was the first to send an embassy to China from South India.

√He was the first to send an ambassador to China from South India.

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#Cholas

The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu.

Their core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam.

Their capital was Uraiyur (near Tiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.

Tiger was their emblem.

The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.

King Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas.

•Pattinappalai written by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar depicts his life as well as military achievements

Many Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.

Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil region of that time.

Trade and commerce flourished during his reign.

He founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.

•Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by Karikala.

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#Pandyas

The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.

Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.

Their emblem was the “Fish”.

They patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems.

Rulers kept a regular army.

Trade was prosperous and their pearls were famous.

Sati, caste, idol worship were common. Widows were treated badly.

They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.

Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.

After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than a century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.

•The socio-economic condition of the seaport of Korkai was mentioned in Maduraikkanji which was written by Mangudi Maruthanar.

•According to mythology, the curse of the Kannagi, wife of Kovalan, burnt and destroyed Madurai.

•King Neduncheliyan was also called Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan

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