🔆 Distribution of Mineral Oil & Its Global Implications
(UPSC Mains GS1 – 2015 Topic Revisited)

📍 Uneven Global Distribution
✅ Major reserves in Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran), North America (USA, Canada), Russia, Venezuela
✅ Significant offshore deposits in Arctic, North Sea, and West Africa

📍 Geopolitical Tensions
✅ Oil-rich nations wield strategic influence
✅ Oil-importing nations face energy security risks

📍 Economic Impact
✅ Drives industrialization and trade
✅ Prone to market volatility due to demand-supply mismatch

📍 Environmental Costs
✅ Extraction leads to pollution, habitat destruction, climate change
✅ Combustion worsens global warming

📍 Energy Transition & Future Outlook
✅ Renewables rising, but oil remains indispensable
✅ Emphasizes need for sustainable management & equitable resource policies

#GS1 #EnergySecurity

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🔆 India’s Disaster Risk Profile: Key Facts & Figures

📍 Latest indicators from official sources
✅ India’s Disaster Preparedness Score = 19.2
(Source: SDG India Index 2024)

✅ India would lose 6% of working hours due to heat stress (≈ 35 million full-time jobs)
(Source: ILO)

✅ Expected financial losses due to heat stress = $2.4 trillion globally by 2030
(Source: ILO)

✅ Nearly 90% of India lies in danger zone from heatwave impact
(Source: PLOS)

✅ Drought impact reduced India’s GDP by up to 5% in the last 20 years
(Source: UNCCD report)

✅ Drought-prone areas increased by 60% in last 25 years
(Source: NIDM)

✅ 40% of India’s land and 70% of cropped area is drought-prone, affecting >40% of population
(Source: NIDM)

✅ In 60 years, floods caused ₹4.5 trillion loss and >1 lakh deaths
(Source: Down to Earth)

✅ Over 12% of land prone to floods & river erosion
(Source: NDMA)

✅ 60% of India vulnerable to earthquakes where >80% of population lives
(Source: NDMA – Earthquake Disaster Risk Index Report)

✅ 75% of coastline & 1/3rd population vulnerable to cyclone-related disasters
(Source: IMD)

✅ India is exposed to 10% of world’s tropical cyclones
(Source: IMD)

#GS3 #DisasterManagement #Data
#Disaster_management
#GS3
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🔆 Case Study: Sinking of Joshimath

📍 Joshimath, located in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, is facing severe land subsidence driven by both natural vulnerabilities and human-induced stress.

✅ Key Geophysical Factors
• Located in a high-risk seismic zone (Zone V).
• Lies over active fault lines — Vaikrita Thrust and Main Central Thrust.
• Built on geologically unstable terrain of old landslide debris.

✅ Human-Induced Stress
• Unregulated construction and large-scale hydroelectric projects have disturbed the fragile ecosystem.
• Increased rainfall and blocked drainage systems further exacerbate ground instability.

📍 Way Forward
✅ Urgent steps needed include:
• Regulated development
• Scientific and geological reassessment
• Seismic risk mitigation planning

Protecting Joshimath demands a balance between ecology and development.

📝 Mains GS1 Q
Q. The crisis in Joshimath highlights the tension between environmental fragility and developmental pressures in Himalayan towns. Analyse the causes of the crisis and suggest sustainable solutions.

#GS1 #Geography #DisasterManagement #Joshimath

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🔆 Coastal Landforms – UPSC Notes

📍 Classification & Significance | Erosion, Deposition, and Government Response

✅ Erosional Landforms
➤ Headlands and Bays: Waves erode softer rock (bays); harder rock forms headlands.
➤ Cliffs and Wave-Cut Platforms: Cliffs formed by relentless wave pounding; erosion creates flat platforms at the base.
➤ Caves, Arches, Stacks, Stumps: Waves carve caves in headlands → grow into arches → collapse into stacks → eroded into stumps.

✅ Depositional Landforms
➤ Beaches: Formed by accumulation of eroded rock fragments by wave action.
➤ Spits, Bars and Lagoons: Spits = sand extensions into sea; when connected across a bay = bars, forming lagoons behind.

✅ Significance of Coastal Landforms
➤ Tourism Hubs: Especially beaches (major attractions).
➤ Mineral Resources: Beaches may contain gold (Subarnarekha River) & thorium (Kerala).

✅ Threats of Coastal Erosion
➤ Vulnerable Coastlines: 33.6% of India’s coastline under threat; Odisha most affected (28%).
➤ Community Impact: Loss of boats, nets, fishing spaces; habitat destruction and displacement.

✅ Government Measures to Prevent Erosion
➤ Mangrove planting & shelterbelts
➤ Installing Geo-tubes
➤ Rs. 2500 crore under 15th Finance Commission for resettlement of displaced families and mitigation efforts.

📝 Prelims MCQ
Which of the following is a depositional coastal feature?

(a) Stack
(b) Cliff
(c) Lagoon
(d) Cave
✅ Ans: (c) Lagoon

📝 Mains Q (GS1 – Geography)
Discuss the formation and significance of coastal landforms. How is coastal erosion impacting India’s coastal communities and what measures are being taken to mitigate it?

#GS1 #Geography #CoastalErosion #DisasterMitigation

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🔆 Kashmir’s Scorching Summer: Heat Records and Urban Impact

📍 Seven-decade high in Srinagar amid erratic climate shifts

✅ Record-Breaking Heat in Kashmir:
◦ Srinagar recorded a seven-decade high temperature on July 5, 2025, reaching 37.4°C — third-highest for July on record.
◦ Pahalgam hit 31.6°C, its highest ever; June 2025 was the hottest in Kashmir in nearly 50 years.

✅ Climatic Characteristics of Kashmir:
◦ The valley has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons.
◦ Summer (June–August) is the warmest, with urban highs touching 36°C.

✅ Recent Climatic Changes:
◦ Long dry spells, erratic weather, and consistent warming have become frequent.
◦ In June, temperatures were ~3°C above normal, with declining rainfall.

✅ Urban Heat Islands (UHIs):
◦ Urbanisation, concretisation, loss of vegetation, and vanishing water bodies trap heat in cities like Srinagar.
◦ Urban areas are now warmer than rural surroundings — classic UHI pattern.

✅ Reasons Behind the Warming:
◦ Climate change + local factors like melting snow by March, less snowfall, vehicle emissions, and construction.
◦ Green cover decline reduces natural cooling.

✅ Worrying Trends:
◦ Max temperatures in June now stay between 32°C to 33°C, far above historical averages.
◦ Not isolated — min & max temperatures remain consistently elevated.
◦ Kashmir now shows signs of heatwave-like conditions, rare in past decades.

✅ Environmental/Ecological Impacts:
◦ Drying rivers (e.g. Jhelum) and increased water stress seen.
◦ Air conditioner demand surges — power and energy systems under pressure.
◦ Long-term threats to agriculture, water security, and ecology.

📘 Source: The Indian Express | July 2025

📝 Mains Q (GS1 + GS3 – Geography + Environment)
“Rising temperatures in ecologically sensitive regions like Kashmir reflect both global and local anthropogenic pressures.” Discuss the causes, impacts, and mitigation strategies with reference to recent heatwave-like conditions in the Valley.

#GS1 #ClimateChange #GS3 #Kashmir #environment #geography

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