🔆 Important Volcanoes
📍 Mount Yasur
✅ Location: Tanna Island, Vanuatu
✅ Details: One of the world’s most accessible active volcanoes; continuous activity.
📍 Mount Ruapehu
✅ Location: North Island, New Zealand
✅ Details: Active stratovolcano; highest point in the North Island.
📍 Mount Tavurvur
✅ Location: East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
✅ Details: Active volcano; part of the Rabaul caldera.
📍 Mount Yasur
✅ Location: Tanna Island, Vanuatu
✅ Details: One of the world’s most accessible active volcanoes; continuous activity.
📍 Mount Ruapehu
✅ Location: North Island, New Zealand
✅ Details: Active stratovolcano; highest point in the North Island.
📍 Mount Tavurvur
✅ Location: East New Britain, Papua New Guinea
✅ Details: Active volcano; part of the Rabaul caldera.
🔆 Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica
✅ Location:
• The Ellsworth Mountains are situated in West Antarctica.
✅ Key Feature:
• These mountains include Mount Vinson, the highest peak in Antarctica, standing at 4,892 meters.
#EllsworthMountains #MountVinson #Antarctica #Geography
✅ Location:
• The Ellsworth Mountains are situated in West Antarctica.
✅ Key Feature:
• These mountains include Mount Vinson, the highest peak in Antarctica, standing at 4,892 meters.
#EllsworthMountains #MountVinson #Antarctica #Geography
Forwarded from UPSC Mapping Prelims Mains
🔆 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) & Indian Monsoon 🌧️
📍 What is IOD?
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate phenomenon caused by temperature differences between the eastern (Bay of Bengal) and western (Arabian Sea) regions of the Indian Ocean. It greatly impacts the Indian monsoon and rainfall distribution.
🔹 Positive IOD:
✅ Warmer West, Cooler East - Warmer sea temperatures in the west and cooler in the east create favorable conditions for rainfall.
✅ Enhanced Monsoon - Strengthens monsoon circulation, increasing rainfall in central India.
✅ Increased Rainfall - Observed above-average rainfall in central India during positive IOD years.
🔻 Negative IOD:
✅ Cooler West, Warmer East - Temperature reversal leads to a weaker monsoon.
✅ Weaker Monsoon - Disrupts monsoon circulation, causing a delayed or weak monsoon.
✅ Drought Risk - Potential drought conditions, particularly in central and eastern India, with below-average rainfall.
#Geography
📍 What is IOD?
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate phenomenon caused by temperature differences between the eastern (Bay of Bengal) and western (Arabian Sea) regions of the Indian Ocean. It greatly impacts the Indian monsoon and rainfall distribution.
🔹 Positive IOD:
✅ Warmer West, Cooler East - Warmer sea temperatures in the west and cooler in the east create favorable conditions for rainfall.
✅ Enhanced Monsoon - Strengthens monsoon circulation, increasing rainfall in central India.
✅ Increased Rainfall - Observed above-average rainfall in central India during positive IOD years.
🔻 Negative IOD:
✅ Cooler West, Warmer East - Temperature reversal leads to a weaker monsoon.
✅ Weaker Monsoon - Disrupts monsoon circulation, causing a delayed or weak monsoon.
✅ Drought Risk - Potential drought conditions, particularly in central and eastern India, with below-average rainfall.
#Geography
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Forwarded from CSE EXAM ( UPSC prelims mains) CAPF
CSP-2025-WR-NameList-Engl-110625.pdf
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Name Wise 2025 Pre
🔆 Rain-Bearing Systems
📍 Arabian Sea Branch
✅ Divides into three streams:
• Western Coast: Heavy rainfall (250 cm) due to orographic effect.
• Narmada-Tapi troughs: Narrow valley system in central India.
• Aravalli Range: Minimal rainfall impact.
📍 Bay of Bengal Branch
✅ Splits into two streams:
• Ganga-Brahmaputra delta: Heavy rainfall, Cherrapunji (1,221 cm) holds record.
• Himalayan foothills: Deflected by mountains, widespread rainfall to Ganges Plain.
📍 Monsoon Break
✅ Dry spells during monsoon, known as break in monsoon, common after a few days of rain.
📍 Retreat in Monsoon
✅ Withdrawal of monsoon winds, known as retreating monsoon, occurs in October-November.
#Geography
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📍 Arabian Sea Branch
✅ Divides into three streams:
• Western Coast: Heavy rainfall (250 cm) due to orographic effect.
• Narmada-Tapi troughs: Narrow valley system in central India.
• Aravalli Range: Minimal rainfall impact.
📍 Bay of Bengal Branch
✅ Splits into two streams:
• Ganga-Brahmaputra delta: Heavy rainfall, Cherrapunji (1,221 cm) holds record.
• Himalayan foothills: Deflected by mountains, widespread rainfall to Ganges Plain.
📍 Monsoon Break
✅ Dry spells during monsoon, known as break in monsoon, common after a few days of rain.
📍 Retreat in Monsoon
✅ Withdrawal of monsoon winds, known as retreating monsoon, occurs in October-November.
#Geography
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🔆 Global Distribution of Earthquakes
📍 Major Seismic Belts
✅ The circum-Pacific seismic belt found along the rim of the Pacific Ocean is the world’s greatest earthquake belt. Around 81% of the world’s largest earthquakes occur here. Known as the “Ring of Fire”.
✅ The Alpide earthquake belt spreads from Java to Sumatra, through the Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and into the Atlantic. It causes about 17% of the world’s earthquakes.
✅ The third belt is the mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submerged divergent plate boundary where tectonic plates are spreading apart.
🔆 Seismic Mapping of India
📍 Seismic Zonation Insights
✅ About 59% of India’s land area is prone to earthquakes.
✅ The seismic map classifies India into 4 seismic zones based on intensity.
✅ Zone V is the most active (Very High Risk), while Zone II is the least active.
➤ Approx. 10.79% in Zone V, 17.49% in Zone IV, 30.79% in Zone III, and 40.93% in Zone II.
#Geography
#disaster_management
📍 Major Seismic Belts
✅ The circum-Pacific seismic belt found along the rim of the Pacific Ocean is the world’s greatest earthquake belt. Around 81% of the world’s largest earthquakes occur here. Known as the “Ring of Fire”.
✅ The Alpide earthquake belt spreads from Java to Sumatra, through the Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and into the Atlantic. It causes about 17% of the world’s earthquakes.
✅ The third belt is the mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submerged divergent plate boundary where tectonic plates are spreading apart.
🔆 Seismic Mapping of India
📍 Seismic Zonation Insights
✅ About 59% of India’s land area is prone to earthquakes.
✅ The seismic map classifies India into 4 seismic zones based on intensity.
✅ Zone V is the most active (Very High Risk), while Zone II is the least active.
➤ Approx. 10.79% in Zone V, 17.49% in Zone IV, 30.79% in Zone III, and 40.93% in Zone II.
#Geography
#disaster_management
Forwarded from CSE EXAM ( UPSC prelims mains) CAPF
CAPF-2024-Engl-FR-130625.pdf
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CAPF FINAL RESULTS24
🔆 Cold Lava (Lahar): A Silent but Deadly Force
📍 Context: The Mount Kanlaon volcano in the Philippines recently witnessed rivers of cold lava, also known as lahars.
📌 What is Cold Lava (Lahar)?
✅ A fast-moving slurry of water, volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice.
✅ Forms when volcanic ash mixes with heavy rain or when glacial ice melts, even without eruptions.
✅ Moves at high speeds, reaching hundreds of km/h, making it more dangerous than slow-moving lava.
✅ Hot & destructive**—traps heat, **burns everything in its path, causes property damage & loss of life.
✅ Creates floods by damming rivers, harming ecosystems, and increasing flood risks.
⚠️ How to Mitigate Lahars?
✅ Early warning systems & engineering solutions can reduce damage.
✅ Community education on lahar-prone zones saves lives.
🌋 Lava vs. Magma:
🟠 Magma – Found inside the Earth (molten rock in the mantle).
🔴 Lava – Magma that has reached the surface through a volcanic vent.
#ColdLava #Lahar #VolcanoHazards #DisasterPreparedness #Geography
📍 Context: The Mount Kanlaon volcano in the Philippines recently witnessed rivers of cold lava, also known as lahars.
📌 What is Cold Lava (Lahar)?
✅ A fast-moving slurry of water, volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice.
✅ Forms when volcanic ash mixes with heavy rain or when glacial ice melts, even without eruptions.
✅ Moves at high speeds, reaching hundreds of km/h, making it more dangerous than slow-moving lava.
✅ Hot & destructive**—traps heat, **burns everything in its path, causes property damage & loss of life.
✅ Creates floods by damming rivers, harming ecosystems, and increasing flood risks.
⚠️ How to Mitigate Lahars?
✅ Early warning systems & engineering solutions can reduce damage.
✅ Community education on lahar-prone zones saves lives.
🌋 Lava vs. Magma:
🟠 Magma – Found inside the Earth (molten rock in the mantle).
🔴 Lava – Magma that has reached the surface through a volcanic vent.
#ColdLava #Lahar #VolcanoHazards #DisasterPreparedness #Geography
🔆 Cold Lava (Lahar): A Silent but Deadly Force
📍 Context: The Mount Kanlaon volcano in the Philippines recently witnessed rivers of cold lava, also known as lahars.
📌 What is Cold Lava (Lahar)?
✅ A fast-moving slurry of water, volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice.
✅ Forms when volcanic ash mixes with heavy rain or when glacial ice melts, even without eruptions.
✅ Moves at high speeds, reaching hundreds of km/h, making it more dangerous than slow-moving lava.
✅ Hot & destructive**—traps heat, **burns everything in its path, causes property damage & loss of life.
✅ Creates floods by damming rivers, harming ecosystems, and increasing flood risks.
⚠️ How to Mitigate Lahars?
✅ Early warning systems & engineering solutions can reduce damage.
✅ Community education on lahar-prone zones saves lives.
🌋 Lava vs. Magma:
🟠 Magma – Found inside the Earth (molten rock in the mantle).
🔴 Lava – Magma that has reached the surface through a volcanic vent.
#ColdLava #Lahar #VolcanoHazards #DisasterPreparedness #Geography
📍 Context: The Mount Kanlaon volcano in the Philippines recently witnessed rivers of cold lava, also known as lahars.
📌 What is Cold Lava (Lahar)?
✅ A fast-moving slurry of water, volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice.
✅ Forms when volcanic ash mixes with heavy rain or when glacial ice melts, even without eruptions.
✅ Moves at high speeds, reaching hundreds of km/h, making it more dangerous than slow-moving lava.
✅ Hot & destructive**—traps heat, **burns everything in its path, causes property damage & loss of life.
✅ Creates floods by damming rivers, harming ecosystems, and increasing flood risks.
⚠️ How to Mitigate Lahars?
✅ Early warning systems & engineering solutions can reduce damage.
✅ Community education on lahar-prone zones saves lives.
🌋 Lava vs. Magma:
🟠 Magma – Found inside the Earth (molten rock in the mantle).
🔴 Lava – Magma that has reached the surface through a volcanic vent.
#ColdLava #Lahar #VolcanoHazards #DisasterPreparedness #Geography
Forwarded from UPSC Mapping Prelims Mains
🔆 Winter Weather in India: Key Drivers & Effects
📍 1. Surface Pressure & Winds
✅ High-pressure zone forms in Central & West Asia.
✅ Cold continental winds blow into India from the north.
✅ These collide with trade winds → unstable zone forms.
✅ Result: Northwest India experiences dry, cold North-Westerlies.
📍 2. Jet Stream & Upper Air Circulation
✅ Westerly jet streams dominate Asia in winter.
✅ Tibetan Himalayas split jet into two:
🔹 North branch flows over Tibetan Plateau.
🔹 South branch crosses south of the Himalayas.
✅ Subtropical westerly jet brings winter rain to northwest India.
📍 3. Western Disturbances & Cyclones
✅ Western disturbances (from the Mediterranean) hit north & northwest India.
✅ Bring light winter rain → great for wheat crops.
✅ Tropical cyclones still possible in Oct–Nov, driven by easterlies.
✅ Hit east coast states – TN, AP, Odisha with heavy rain + wind.
#Geography
📍 1. Surface Pressure & Winds
✅ High-pressure zone forms in Central & West Asia.
✅ Cold continental winds blow into India from the north.
✅ These collide with trade winds → unstable zone forms.
✅ Result: Northwest India experiences dry, cold North-Westerlies.
📍 2. Jet Stream & Upper Air Circulation
✅ Westerly jet streams dominate Asia in winter.
✅ Tibetan Himalayas split jet into two:
🔹 North branch flows over Tibetan Plateau.
🔹 South branch crosses south of the Himalayas.
✅ Subtropical westerly jet brings winter rain to northwest India.
📍 3. Western Disturbances & Cyclones
✅ Western disturbances (from the Mediterranean) hit north & northwest India.
✅ Bring light winter rain → great for wheat crops.
✅ Tropical cyclones still possible in Oct–Nov, driven by easterlies.
✅ Hit east coast states – TN, AP, Odisha with heavy rain + wind.
#Geography
Forwarded from UPSC Mapping Prelims Mains
🔆 Effects of Ocean Currents
📍 Climate Control
✅ Warm currents raise temperatures; cold ones cool them.
➡️ Example: North Atlantic Drift warms England; Canary cools Spain.
📍 Rainfall & Deserts
✅ Warm currents → more rainfall.
✅ Cold currents → desert formation.
➡️ Example: Cold Humboldt Current causes the Atacama Desert.
📍 Fishing Zones
✅ Convergence of warm & cold currents supports plankton → rich fish stocks.
➡️ Example: Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
📍 Navigation
✅ Currents aid efficient maritime travel by influencing shipping lanes.
📍 Temperature Moderation
✅ Currents redistribute heat and stabilize coastal climates.
➡️ Example: England remains mild due to warm currents.
#Geography
📍 Climate Control
✅ Warm currents raise temperatures; cold ones cool them.
➡️ Example: North Atlantic Drift warms England; Canary cools Spain.
📍 Rainfall & Deserts
✅ Warm currents → more rainfall.
✅ Cold currents → desert formation.
➡️ Example: Cold Humboldt Current causes the Atacama Desert.
📍 Fishing Zones
✅ Convergence of warm & cold currents supports plankton → rich fish stocks.
➡️ Example: Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
📍 Navigation
✅ Currents aid efficient maritime travel by influencing shipping lanes.
📍 Temperature Moderation
✅ Currents redistribute heat and stabilize coastal climates.
➡️ Example: England remains mild due to warm currents.
#Geography
Forwarded from UPSC Mapping Prelims Mains
🔆 Why El Niño Is Hard to Predict
📍 El Niño remains a major challenge in climate forecasting due to dynamic ocean-atmosphere interactions
✅ 🌊 ENSO has 3 phases: El Niño (warm), La Niña (cool), and neutral.
✅ 🌀 Climate models struggle due to late-emerging ENSO signals (only in early summer).
✅ 🌬️ Westerly wind bursts and Indian Ocean anomalies can trigger or dampen ENSO.
✅ 🧪 New model: Recharge Oscillator (RO) simulates ENSO as a contest between sea-surface temp & sub-surface heat.
✅ 🌐 Disagreements remain on which ocean basin is most influential in modelling.
#GS1 #Geography #Climate #ENSO #ElNino #Prelims2026 #UPSC #prelims
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📍 El Niño remains a major challenge in climate forecasting due to dynamic ocean-atmosphere interactions
✅ 🌊 ENSO has 3 phases: El Niño (warm), La Niña (cool), and neutral.
✅ 🌀 Climate models struggle due to late-emerging ENSO signals (only in early summer).
✅ 🌬️ Westerly wind bursts and Indian Ocean anomalies can trigger or dampen ENSO.
✅ 🧪 New model: Recharge Oscillator (RO) simulates ENSO as a contest between sea-surface temp & sub-surface heat.
✅ 🌐 Disagreements remain on which ocean basin is most influential in modelling.
📝 Prelims Question:
Which of the following best describes the ENSO phenomenon?
A. Only a Pacific Ocean event
B. Ocean-atmosphere interaction with 3 phases
C. Caused by monsoonal winds
D. Predictable using historical data
Answer: B
📝 Mains Question (GS1 – Geography):
What makes the prediction of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon difficult? Discuss the implications for global weather forecasting and agriculture.
#GS1 #Geography #Climate #ENSO #ElNino #Prelims2026 #UPSC #prelims
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