Bone comb engraved in La Tène style, Scotland; un-provenanced, 1st century AD. 🏴
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Redes Natural Park; Asturias, Spain. 🇪🇸
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The lake district, in Cumbria, England. 🏴🏴
This little-known corner of England might easily be confused for the Highlands of Scotland or north Wales, and as its name indicates, in a way it once was… Wales. The name “Cumbria” derives from the native Cymry (Welsh) people. In pre-Roman times, Cumbria had been within the territory of the Brigantes tribal-alliance, and Latin epigraphic evidence seems to indicate a local tribal polity with the name Carvetii (as in Welsh Carw; “red deer”). Later, the area was the core region of the Kingdom of Rheged, before it was absorbed into Anglian Northumbria in the mid 600s AD. In the late 500s, Rheged’s power —under rulers like Cynfarch and his son Urien— had been unrivaled in the north. Urien and his son Owain achieved fame due to their many victories against the Angles. Another little known fact is that centuries after Rheged’s dissolution, the area again came under Brittonic control: In the decade of the 910s, the Kingdom of Strathclyde conquered the greater part of Cumbria from the Norse-Gaelic Uí Ímair, who’d taken over the Kingdom of Jórvík (York) in the aftermath of the collapse of Danish power there, a consequence of the disastrous Battle of Tetenhall (AD 910) against England. English Northumbria had meantime been reduced by the Danes to a small rump-state comprised of Bernicia and southern Scotland up to the Lothians. Strathclyde, however, had been in sharp decline since the 870s, variously harassed either by the same Uí Ímair or by the Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). By AD 945, Cumbria was again conquered by king Edmund I of England, who captured and blinded two sons of king Dyfnwal ap Owain, and granted overlordship of the remainder of Strathclyde to king Malcolm I of Scotland in exchange for an alliance.
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This little-known corner of England might easily be confused for the Highlands of Scotland or north Wales, and as its name indicates, in a way it once was… Wales. The name “Cumbria” derives from the native Cymry (Welsh) people. In pre-Roman times, Cumbria had been within the territory of the Brigantes tribal-alliance, and Latin epigraphic evidence seems to indicate a local tribal polity with the name Carvetii (as in Welsh Carw; “red deer”). Later, the area was the core region of the Kingdom of Rheged, before it was absorbed into Anglian Northumbria in the mid 600s AD. In the late 500s, Rheged’s power —under rulers like Cynfarch and his son Urien— had been unrivaled in the north. Urien and his son Owain achieved fame due to their many victories against the Angles. Another little known fact is that centuries after Rheged’s dissolution, the area again came under Brittonic control: In the decade of the 910s, the Kingdom of Strathclyde conquered the greater part of Cumbria from the Norse-Gaelic Uí Ímair, who’d taken over the Kingdom of Jórvík (York) in the aftermath of the collapse of Danish power there, a consequence of the disastrous Battle of Tetenhall (AD 910) against England. English Northumbria had meantime been reduced by the Danes to a small rump-state comprised of Bernicia and southern Scotland up to the Lothians. Strathclyde, however, had been in sharp decline since the 870s, variously harassed either by the same Uí Ímair or by the Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). By AD 945, Cumbria was again conquered by king Edmund I of England, who captured and blinded two sons of king Dyfnwal ap Owain, and granted overlordship of the remainder of Strathclyde to king Malcolm I of Scotland in exchange for an alliance.
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Celtic Europe
The Hill of Tara (Irish: Cnoc Teamhrach), in county Meath, Ireland. 🇮🇪 The Hill of Tara was used for burial and ritual purposes since neolithic times, long before the arrival of Celtic or Indo-European peoples in Ireland. Irish literature recalls that in…
The “Rath of the Synods” (Irish: Rath na Seanadh) at the Hill of Tara, in county Meath, Ireland. 🇮🇪🏳️
The Rath of the Synods takes its name from the fact that there were several synods of Christian clergymen held there during the early medieval period. However, the structure was in ruins by then, it’s occupation dating earlier to between the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. It had been built directly within the ceremonial space of the Hill of Tara, Ireland’s most important ritual site where the High Kings of Ireland were inaugurated. The Rath was a palisaded ring-fort containing a large oval hut. Excavations by the poet and columnist Seán Ó’Riordáin in 1952 found no demonstrably native material, only Roman imports such as pottery, wine flagons, glass beads, iron padlocks, a Roman brooch, and various other iron and bronze objects. Most strikingly, an official Roman seal was found showing a bird (probably the Eagle of Jupiter) holding something in its beak. The Rath of the Synods thus appears to have been inhabited not by Irishmen but by Romans… who could afford to import wine and were apparently using an official seal to stamp documents. Quite possibly, what Ó’Riordáin uncovered was a permanent Roman embassy linking the empire to Ireland’s most powerful rulers. If that’s the case, it might suggest that the Connachta dynasty that dominated the High Kingship of Ireland —descendants of Conn of the Hundred Battles and his grandfather Tuathal Techtmar— were Roman allies; at least intermittently.
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The Rath of the Synods takes its name from the fact that there were several synods of Christian clergymen held there during the early medieval period. However, the structure was in ruins by then, it’s occupation dating earlier to between the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. It had been built directly within the ceremonial space of the Hill of Tara, Ireland’s most important ritual site where the High Kings of Ireland were inaugurated. The Rath was a palisaded ring-fort containing a large oval hut. Excavations by the poet and columnist Seán Ó’Riordáin in 1952 found no demonstrably native material, only Roman imports such as pottery, wine flagons, glass beads, iron padlocks, a Roman brooch, and various other iron and bronze objects. Most strikingly, an official Roman seal was found showing a bird (probably the Eagle of Jupiter) holding something in its beak. The Rath of the Synods thus appears to have been inhabited not by Irishmen but by Romans… who could afford to import wine and were apparently using an official seal to stamp documents. Quite possibly, what Ó’Riordáin uncovered was a permanent Roman embassy linking the empire to Ireland’s most powerful rulers. If that’s the case, it might suggest that the Connachta dynasty that dominated the High Kingship of Ireland —descendants of Conn of the Hundred Battles and his grandfather Tuathal Techtmar— were Roman allies; at least intermittently.
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Druids incite the Britons to fight against the Roman legions; 1909 illustration by Édouard Zier for Casell’s History of England, vol. 1. 🏳️ ⚔️🏴
In AD 61 the Roman governor of Britain, Suetonius Paulinus, was campaigning in Wales to subdue recalcitrant tribes there. Judging that the druids were inciting native resistance, he led his troops to their headquarters and most sacred site: The Isle of Anglesey —then known as Mona— in north Wales. Years earlier, the Roman emperor Claudius had outlawed druids in all Roman territories; the decree’s enforcement would gradually extend to any parts of Britain coming under Roman authority. When crossing the Menai Strait, Suetonius’ troops were confronted by bands of druids imprecating curses upon them and inciting their people to battle. Overcoming an initial reaction of shock, the Romans set upon and cut them to pieces, then ravaged the island and cut down all the sacred groves. Just as he was wrapping up the campaign, Suetonius was informed that queen Boudica of the Iceni had galvanized the Britons in Eastern England to revolt, and hurried back to crush the rebellion (Information on Boudica’s uprising here: https://www.tg-me.com/CelticEurope/683). The massacre of the druids and destruction of Mona was thought to be a crippling psychological blow, yet tenacious resistance in Wales continued; the Ordovices and Silures fought on and weren’t defeated until AD 77. The Romans continued facing tough resistance elsewhere as well, campaigning in the north until AD 84. As Rome smashed resistance throughout the island, the druids would variously be forced underground or driven to Ireland and remote parts of Scotland.
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In AD 61 the Roman governor of Britain, Suetonius Paulinus, was campaigning in Wales to subdue recalcitrant tribes there. Judging that the druids were inciting native resistance, he led his troops to their headquarters and most sacred site: The Isle of Anglesey —then known as Mona— in north Wales. Years earlier, the Roman emperor Claudius had outlawed druids in all Roman territories; the decree’s enforcement would gradually extend to any parts of Britain coming under Roman authority. When crossing the Menai Strait, Suetonius’ troops were confronted by bands of druids imprecating curses upon them and inciting their people to battle. Overcoming an initial reaction of shock, the Romans set upon and cut them to pieces, then ravaged the island and cut down all the sacred groves. Just as he was wrapping up the campaign, Suetonius was informed that queen Boudica of the Iceni had galvanized the Britons in Eastern England to revolt, and hurried back to crush the rebellion (Information on Boudica’s uprising here: https://www.tg-me.com/CelticEurope/683). The massacre of the druids and destruction of Mona was thought to be a crippling psychological blow, yet tenacious resistance in Wales continued; the Ordovices and Silures fought on and weren’t defeated until AD 77. The Romans continued facing tough resistance elsewhere as well, campaigning in the north until AD 84. As Rome smashed resistance throughout the island, the druids would variously be forced underground or driven to Ireland and remote parts of Scotland.
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Distribution of large oppida —fortified urban centres— in Celtic Europe; last two centuries B.C. By Manuel Fernández-Götz. 🇪🇸 ⚜️🇫🇷 🇧🇪🇱🇺🇩🇪 🇨🇭🇦🇹🇨🇿🇸🇰🇭🇺
In the last two centuries B.C; the Celtic cultures of Europe, —including Iberia, which isn’t shown except for one oppidum: Monte Bernorio— were developing into an urban culture of cities, roads, coinage, and large-scale commerce. Greco-Roman sources described Celts as primitive “barbarians”, but archaeology has proven that at least from 150 B.C. or so onward, this would have been mere propaganda and literary tropes; a cliché even. Many of them were describing something that hadn’t existed for centuries. Sites like Heidengraben, Kelheim, and Manching in Germany, Zavist and Staré Hradisko in Bohemia & Moravia, Bibracte, Corent, Gergovia, and Alesia in France, Colchester and Stanwick in England, cannot be described as anything but large, complex, and well-planned cities.
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In the last two centuries B.C; the Celtic cultures of Europe, —including Iberia, which isn’t shown except for one oppidum: Monte Bernorio— were developing into an urban culture of cities, roads, coinage, and large-scale commerce. Greco-Roman sources described Celts as primitive “barbarians”, but archaeology has proven that at least from 150 B.C. or so onward, this would have been mere propaganda and literary tropes; a cliché even. Many of them were describing something that hadn’t existed for centuries. Sites like Heidengraben, Kelheim, and Manching in Germany, Zavist and Staré Hradisko in Bohemia & Moravia, Bibracte, Corent, Gergovia, and Alesia in France, Colchester and Stanwick in England, cannot be described as anything but large, complex, and well-planned cities.
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Derryveagh Mountains; county Donegal, Ireland. 🇮🇪
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Bronze plaque (original above, modern replica below) with Celtiberian writing, discovered in Botorrita (ancient Contrebia Belaisca); Aragón, Spain. 🇪🇸
Botorrita I is the longest known inscription in the Celtiberian Language. It dates to the 2nd century B.C; and was produced in a native Iberian script. Various translations of the text have been put forth, most of which agree that it contains decisions by the ruling assemblies of two or more communities in the area. These seem to be settlements prohibiting the building of new works or destruction of existing ones on or beyond boundaries between the different communities, with prescribed fines for any infractions. The plaque reveals that Celtiberian communities were being governed by assemblies of 300 elders (Celtiberian: tirikantam; “three hundred”), who functioned as a form of mixed legislative-judicial body, laws coming about as a result of dispute arbitration or trial. Essentially, it’s like what in Common Law nations is known as “Case Law”. Medieval Castilian practice seems to reflect a return to this tradition: In the 10th century, the County of Castile had begun asserting independence from the Kingdom of León by rejecting the Roman-derived Liber-Iudiciorum in favor of case-law known as Juicio de Albedrío, with judgments known as fazañas becoming new laws. The number 300 is also curious, as a similar arrangement is mentioned by Strabo among the Galatian Celts of Asia Minor, where an assembly of 300 judges existed to preside over special cases involving manslaughter or murder. It’s also tempting to see the tirikantam as a copy of the 300-man Roman senate, however, these Celtiberian presbyteries functioned differently. Another interesting detail is that the inscription ends with an apparent list of guarantors. Use of guarantors in legal matters is something we see paralleled centuries later in Irish Brehon Law.
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Botorrita I is the longest known inscription in the Celtiberian Language. It dates to the 2nd century B.C; and was produced in a native Iberian script. Various translations of the text have been put forth, most of which agree that it contains decisions by the ruling assemblies of two or more communities in the area. These seem to be settlements prohibiting the building of new works or destruction of existing ones on or beyond boundaries between the different communities, with prescribed fines for any infractions. The plaque reveals that Celtiberian communities were being governed by assemblies of 300 elders (Celtiberian: tirikantam; “three hundred”), who functioned as a form of mixed legislative-judicial body, laws coming about as a result of dispute arbitration or trial. Essentially, it’s like what in Common Law nations is known as “Case Law”. Medieval Castilian practice seems to reflect a return to this tradition: In the 10th century, the County of Castile had begun asserting independence from the Kingdom of León by rejecting the Roman-derived Liber-Iudiciorum in favor of case-law known as Juicio de Albedrío, with judgments known as fazañas becoming new laws. The number 300 is also curious, as a similar arrangement is mentioned by Strabo among the Galatian Celts of Asia Minor, where an assembly of 300 judges existed to preside over special cases involving manslaughter or murder. It’s also tempting to see the tirikantam as a copy of the 300-man Roman senate, however, these Celtiberian presbyteries functioned differently. Another interesting detail is that the inscription ends with an apparent list of guarantors. Use of guarantors in legal matters is something we see paralleled centuries later in Irish Brehon Law.
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Modern replica of a Gallic bronze standard —decorated in La Tène style and shaped like a wild boar— discovered on a beach near Soulac-sur-Mer, in Gironde, France; 1st century B.C. ⚜️🇫🇷 On display at the Bibracte Museum.
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Earthworks and stone ruins of the Heidetränk Oppidum, in the Taunus Moutains of Hesse, Germany. 🇩🇪
Heidetränk was one of the most important urban settlements in Celtic Europe, dating to the 3rd century B.C. Within a century of its initial foundation, the settlement grew to enclose a whopping 380 hectares within Murus Gallicus type ramparts. The settlement continued in occupation for another two centuries before gradually declining and being abandoned in the mid 1st century B.C. Nearby were other Celtic settlements such as the Altkönig hill-fort, dating to around 400 B.C; and the smaller Bleibeskopf, which dated back to the 8th century B.C. The Taunus Mountains where these settlements were located seem to have been a frontier zone, marking a boundary between Germanic and Celtic peoples. The inhabitants of these settlements seem to have been related to the Celts who inhabited the nearby Wetterau plain, with another important settlement and burial ground there at Glauberg. They are likely the same nation later recorded around Wiesbaden by the Romans with the name ‘Mattiaci’. The Romans erroneously thought them to be a Germanic people, whereas archaeology and genetics suggest that they were Gauls.
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Heidetränk was one of the most important urban settlements in Celtic Europe, dating to the 3rd century B.C. Within a century of its initial foundation, the settlement grew to enclose a whopping 380 hectares within Murus Gallicus type ramparts. The settlement continued in occupation for another two centuries before gradually declining and being abandoned in the mid 1st century B.C. Nearby were other Celtic settlements such as the Altkönig hill-fort, dating to around 400 B.C; and the smaller Bleibeskopf, which dated back to the 8th century B.C. The Taunus Mountains where these settlements were located seem to have been a frontier zone, marking a boundary between Germanic and Celtic peoples. The inhabitants of these settlements seem to have been related to the Celts who inhabited the nearby Wetterau plain, with another important settlement and burial ground there at Glauberg. They are likely the same nation later recorded around Wiesbaden by the Romans with the name ‘Mattiaci’. The Romans erroneously thought them to be a Germanic people, whereas archaeology and genetics suggest that they were Gauls.
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Bronze figurine depicting a warrior with shield and sword, discovered in the ruins of the Gallic city of Manching in Bavaria, Germany; 3rd century B.C. 🇩🇪
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Battle of Burnswark Hill; AD 139/40. Art by Peter Dennis 🏳️ ⚔️🏴🏴
Archaeologists have uncovered two Roman camps beneath the hill-fort of Burnswark Hill in Annandale, Scotland; the camps had special emplacements for artillery pieces. The hill-fort itself was also found to be littered with sling-bullets and ballista bolts. The Roman army had evidently besieged a Celtic settlement and bombarded it with artillery. Radiocarbon dating indicates that this happened in the context of the Antonine occupation of southern Scotland: Under orders from emperor Antoninus Pius, governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus conquered Scotland up to the Forth-Clyde Isthmus, which was then fortified with the famous Antonine Wall. Pausanias tells us that the war was provoked by the Brittonic Brigantes people, who attacked an unknown state known as ‘Genunia’ that was under Roman protection. Based on this and other hints, it appears the Selgovae tribe of Dumfries and Galloway had been part of the Brigantes tribal alliance, and apparently continued identifying as such even after the rest of the Brigantes in northern England had been put down and their polity dissolved. After Urbicus’ campaign, Roman occupation lasted until about AD 162. The Romans evacuated most of southern Scotland and abandoned the Antonine Wall at that point, possibly due to a native revolt and/or attacks by the Caledonians from the north.
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Archaeologists have uncovered two Roman camps beneath the hill-fort of Burnswark Hill in Annandale, Scotland; the camps had special emplacements for artillery pieces. The hill-fort itself was also found to be littered with sling-bullets and ballista bolts. The Roman army had evidently besieged a Celtic settlement and bombarded it with artillery. Radiocarbon dating indicates that this happened in the context of the Antonine occupation of southern Scotland: Under orders from emperor Antoninus Pius, governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus conquered Scotland up to the Forth-Clyde Isthmus, which was then fortified with the famous Antonine Wall. Pausanias tells us that the war was provoked by the Brittonic Brigantes people, who attacked an unknown state known as ‘Genunia’ that was under Roman protection. Based on this and other hints, it appears the Selgovae tribe of Dumfries and Galloway had been part of the Brigantes tribal alliance, and apparently continued identifying as such even after the rest of the Brigantes in northern England had been put down and their polity dissolved. After Urbicus’ campaign, Roman occupation lasted until about AD 162. The Romans evacuated most of southern Scotland and abandoned the Antonine Wall at that point, possibly due to a native revolt and/or attacks by the Caledonians from the north.
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Matterhorn peak (elevation: 4,478 m / 14,692 ft), a.k.a. Gran Bèca, a.k.a. Horu, in Valais Canton, Switzerland.🇨🇭
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