π Winter Weather in India: Key Drivers & Effects
π 1. Surface Pressure & Winds
β High-pressure zone forms in Central & West Asia.
β Cold continental winds blow into India from the north.
β These collide with trade winds β unstable zone forms.
β Result: Northwest India experiences dry, cold North-Westerlies.
π 2. Jet Stream & Upper Air Circulation
β Westerly jet streams dominate Asia in winter.
β Tibetan Himalayas split jet into two:
βπΉ North branch flows over Tibetan Plateau.
βπΉ South branch crosses south of the Himalayas.
β Subtropical westerly jet brings winter rain to northwest India.
π 3. Western Disturbances & Cyclones
β Western disturbances (from the Mediterranean) hit north & northwest India.
β Bring light winter rain β great for wheat crops.
β Tropical cyclones still possible in OctβNov, driven by easterlies.
β Hit east coast states β TN, AP, Odisha with heavy rain + wind.
#Geography
π 1. Surface Pressure & Winds
β High-pressure zone forms in Central & West Asia.
β Cold continental winds blow into India from the north.
β These collide with trade winds β unstable zone forms.
β Result: Northwest India experiences dry, cold North-Westerlies.
π 2. Jet Stream & Upper Air Circulation
β Westerly jet streams dominate Asia in winter.
β Tibetan Himalayas split jet into two:
βπΉ North branch flows over Tibetan Plateau.
βπΉ South branch crosses south of the Himalayas.
β Subtropical westerly jet brings winter rain to northwest India.
π 3. Western Disturbances & Cyclones
β Western disturbances (from the Mediterranean) hit north & northwest India.
β Bring light winter rain β great for wheat crops.
β Tropical cyclones still possible in OctβNov, driven by easterlies.
β Hit east coast states β TN, AP, Odisha with heavy rain + wind.
#Geography
π6β€3
π Effects of Ocean Currents
π Climate Control
β Warm currents raise temperatures; cold ones cool them.
β‘οΈ Example: North Atlantic Drift warms England; Canary cools Spain.
π Rainfall & Deserts
β Warm currents β more rainfall.
β Cold currents β desert formation.
β‘οΈ Example: Cold Humboldt Current causes the Atacama Desert.
π Fishing Zones
β Convergence of warm & cold currents supports plankton β rich fish stocks.
β‘οΈ Example: Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
π Navigation
β Currents aid efficient maritime travel by influencing shipping lanes.
π Temperature Moderation
β Currents redistribute heat and stabilize coastal climates.
β‘οΈ Example: England remains mild due to warm currents.
#Geography
π Climate Control
β Warm currents raise temperatures; cold ones cool them.
β‘οΈ Example: North Atlantic Drift warms England; Canary cools Spain.
π Rainfall & Deserts
β Warm currents β more rainfall.
β Cold currents β desert formation.
β‘οΈ Example: Cold Humboldt Current causes the Atacama Desert.
π Fishing Zones
β Convergence of warm & cold currents supports plankton β rich fish stocks.
β‘οΈ Example: Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
π Navigation
β Currents aid efficient maritime travel by influencing shipping lanes.
π Temperature Moderation
β Currents redistribute heat and stabilize coastal climates.
β‘οΈ Example: England remains mild due to warm currents.
#Geography
π6
Forwarded from Environment & Ecology UPSC prelims mains
π UNOC 2025: A Tidal Push for Ocean Protection
πWhat is UNOC?
β The 3rd UN Oceans Conference held in France
β Goal: Speed up action on protecting high seas, curbing overfishing, and regulating deep-sea mining
πThe BBNJ Treaty (High Seas Treaty)
β Core treaty to protect oceans beyond national jurisdiction
β Needs 60 ratifications to become law β 56 countries onboard, India βin processβ, U.S. still absent
β Aims to protect 30% of marine/coastal areas by 2030
πKey Treaty Tools
β Create marine protected areas beyond national borders
β Enforce environmental impact assessments
β Share marine genetic resources fairly
β Build capacity in developing countries
πThe Big Challenge
β Who gets the commercial benefits from marine genetic resources?
β No clear equity mechanism yet in place
πWhoβs Paying to Protect the Oceans?
β EU: β¬1 billion for conservation and sustainable fishing
β New Zealand: $52 million for Pacific ocean governance
β Germany: β¬100 million to clean up underwater munitions
β Italy: β¬6.5 million for marine surveillance
β Canada: $9 million to fight ocean risks + launched coalition on noise pollution
β Spain: New MPAs covering 25% of its waters
β French Polynesia: Plans worldβs largest MPA
πWhatβs Next?
β A Conference of Parties (COP) for BBNJ is expected by late 2026
β Target: 70 ratifications by Sept 2025 to activate the treaty.
πWhat is UNOC?
β The 3rd UN Oceans Conference held in France
β Goal: Speed up action on protecting high seas, curbing overfishing, and regulating deep-sea mining
πThe BBNJ Treaty (High Seas Treaty)
β Core treaty to protect oceans beyond national jurisdiction
β Needs 60 ratifications to become law β 56 countries onboard, India βin processβ, U.S. still absent
β Aims to protect 30% of marine/coastal areas by 2030
πKey Treaty Tools
β Create marine protected areas beyond national borders
β Enforce environmental impact assessments
β Share marine genetic resources fairly
β Build capacity in developing countries
πThe Big Challenge
β Who gets the commercial benefits from marine genetic resources?
β No clear equity mechanism yet in place
πWhoβs Paying to Protect the Oceans?
β EU: β¬1 billion for conservation and sustainable fishing
β New Zealand: $52 million for Pacific ocean governance
β Germany: β¬100 million to clean up underwater munitions
β Italy: β¬6.5 million for marine surveillance
β Canada: $9 million to fight ocean risks + launched coalition on noise pollution
β Spain: New MPAs covering 25% of its waters
β French Polynesia: Plans worldβs largest MPA
πWhatβs Next?
β A Conference of Parties (COP) for BBNJ is expected by late 2026
β Target: 70 ratifications by Sept 2025 to activate the treaty.
β€8
π Why El NiΓ±o Is Hard to Predict
π El NiΓ±o remains a major challenge in climate forecasting due to dynamic ocean-atmosphere interactions
β π ENSO has 3 phases: El NiΓ±o (warm), La NiΓ±a (cool), and neutral.
β π Climate models struggle due to late-emerging ENSO signals (only in early summer).
β π¬οΈ Westerly wind bursts and Indian Ocean anomalies can trigger or dampen ENSO.
β π§ͺ New model: Recharge Oscillator (RO) simulates ENSO as a contest between sea-surface temp & sub-surface heat.
β π Disagreements remain on which ocean basin is most influential in modelling.
#GS1 #Geography #Climate #ENSO #ElNino #Prelims2026 #UPSC #prelims
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π El NiΓ±o remains a major challenge in climate forecasting due to dynamic ocean-atmosphere interactions
β π ENSO has 3 phases: El NiΓ±o (warm), La NiΓ±a (cool), and neutral.
β π Climate models struggle due to late-emerging ENSO signals (only in early summer).
β π¬οΈ Westerly wind bursts and Indian Ocean anomalies can trigger or dampen ENSO.
β π§ͺ New model: Recharge Oscillator (RO) simulates ENSO as a contest between sea-surface temp & sub-surface heat.
β π Disagreements remain on which ocean basin is most influential in modelling.
π Prelims Question:
Which of the following best describes the ENSO phenomenon?
A. Only a Pacific Ocean event
B. Ocean-atmosphere interaction with 3 phases
C. Caused by monsoonal winds
D. Predictable using historical data
Answer: B
π Mains Question (GS1 β Geography):
What makes the prediction of the El NiΓ±o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon difficult? Discuss the implications for global weather forecasting and agriculture.
#GS1 #Geography #Climate #ENSO #ElNino #Prelims2026 #UPSC #prelims
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β€5π1π₯1
πMount Lewotobi Laki-laki:
β Location: It is located in Indonesiaβs East Nusa Tenggara province on Flores Island.
β It is situated along the famous βRing of Fireβ in the Pacific region.
β It is one of the most frequently active volcanoes in the region.
β It has two peaks arranged on a NW-SE line separated by 2 km and a 1232 m high saddle. This gave the twin volcano its name, Lewotobi, βhusband and wifeβ.
β The two peaks correspond to the Lewotobi Lakilaki (man) and Lewotobi Perempuan (woman)
Lewotobi Lakilaki (1584 m) has a summit crater of 400 m diameter open to the north. Lewotobi Perampuan (1703 m)βs crater is 700 m wide.
β Lewotobi Lakilaki has been frequently active during the 19th and 20th centuries, while the taller and broader Lewotobi Perempuan has erupted only twice in historical time.
β Small lava domes have grown during the 20th century in the summit craters of both volcanoes.
#Places_in_news
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β Location: It is located in Indonesiaβs East Nusa Tenggara province on Flores Island.
β It is situated along the famous βRing of Fireβ in the Pacific region.
β It is one of the most frequently active volcanoes in the region.
β It has two peaks arranged on a NW-SE line separated by 2 km and a 1232 m high saddle. This gave the twin volcano its name, Lewotobi, βhusband and wifeβ.
β The two peaks correspond to the Lewotobi Lakilaki (man) and Lewotobi Perempuan (woman)
Lewotobi Lakilaki (1584 m) has a summit crater of 400 m diameter open to the north. Lewotobi Perampuan (1703 m)βs crater is 700 m wide.
β Lewotobi Lakilaki has been frequently active during the 19th and 20th centuries, while the taller and broader Lewotobi Perempuan has erupted only twice in historical time.
β Small lava domes have grown during the 20th century in the summit craters of both volcanoes.
#Places_in_news
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β€1π1
π Shipki La Pass Reopened: Key Facts
β Himachal Pradesh reopened Shipki La Pass for tourists.
β It was an old trade route between India and Tibet.
β Trade included wool, salt, grains, and turquoise.
β It shortens DelhiβMansarovar route by 14 days.
β Strong cultural ties exist across the India-China border here.
β Reopening can boost tourism, jobs, and people-to-people contact.
β May support soft diplomacy and regional peace.
β Himachal Pradesh reopened Shipki La Pass for tourists.
β It was an old trade route between India and Tibet.
β Trade included wool, salt, grains, and turquoise.
β It shortens DelhiβMansarovar route by 14 days.
β Strong cultural ties exist across the India-China border here.
β Reopening can boost tourism, jobs, and people-to-people contact.
β May support soft diplomacy and regional peace.
β€7π4
π Koeppenβs Climatic Classification of India
π Key Concepts
β Developed by Wladimir Koeppen β based on annual mean temperature and precipitation
β Links vegetation distribution with climate types
β Uses letter codes to classify major climate zones based on seasonality
π Major Climatic Types in India
β (Am) Monsoon with short dry season β West coast (e.g., Goa)
β (As) Monsoon with dry summer β Coromandel coast
β (Aw) Tropical Savanna β Most of Peninsular India
β (BShw) Semi-arid Steppe β Interior Deccan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, J&K
β (BWhw) Hot Desert β West Rajasthan only
β (Cwg) Monsoon with dry winters β Northern Plains
β (Dfc) Cold-humid winter with short summer β Northeast India
β (E) Polar Climate β Upper Himalayas
β (ET) Tundra Climate β Higher Himalayan ranges, Ladakh
π Utility of the Classification
β Helps in agro-climatic zoning, crop selection, water planning
β Useful for disaster risk reduction, ecological studies, and climate adaptation policies
#Geography
π Key Concepts
β Developed by Wladimir Koeppen β based on annual mean temperature and precipitation
β Links vegetation distribution with climate types
β Uses letter codes to classify major climate zones based on seasonality
π Major Climatic Types in India
β (Am) Monsoon with short dry season β West coast (e.g., Goa)
β (As) Monsoon with dry summer β Coromandel coast
β (Aw) Tropical Savanna β Most of Peninsular India
β (BShw) Semi-arid Steppe β Interior Deccan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, J&K
β (BWhw) Hot Desert β West Rajasthan only
β (Cwg) Monsoon with dry winters β Northern Plains
β (Dfc) Cold-humid winter with short summer β Northeast India
β (E) Polar Climate β Upper Himalayas
β (ET) Tundra Climate β Higher Himalayan ranges, Ladakh
π Utility of the Classification
β Helps in agro-climatic zoning, crop selection, water planning
β Useful for disaster risk reduction, ecological studies, and climate adaptation policies
π Prelims Question
Q. Which of the following climate types in India is represented by Koeppenβs classification code βAwβ?
A. Cold-humid winter with short summer
B. Monsoon with short dry season
C. Tropical Savanna
D. Tundra Climate
Answer: β C. Tropical Savanna
π Mains Question (GS1 β Geography)
Q. Discuss the significance of Koeppenβs climatic classification in understanding Indiaβs climatic diversity. How can it assist in agricultural and water resource planning?
#Geography
β€3π1
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β€5
π Global Ocean Heat Content (OHC) β Climate Indicator
π Definition: Total heat absorbed & stored in oceans, measured at various depths.
β Key Facts
β’ Oceans absorb 90% of excess global heat.
β’ Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern Oceans warm faster than global average.
β’ Since 1980s, OHC has doubled/tripled (2023 study).
β Significance
β’ Drives sea level rise, alters weather, disrupts ecosystems, and strengthens cyclones.
β’ A stable climate change indicator beyond surface temperatures.
#Geography
π Definition: Total heat absorbed & stored in oceans, measured at various depths.
β Key Facts
β’ Oceans absorb 90% of excess global heat.
β’ Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern Oceans warm faster than global average.
β’ Since 1980s, OHC has doubled/tripled (2023 study).
β Significance
β’ Drives sea level rise, alters weather, disrupts ecosystems, and strengthens cyclones.
β’ A stable climate change indicator beyond surface temperatures.
#Geography
β€8
π External Migration: A Double-Edged Sword
πMigration brings economic benefits but also social challenges.
β Positive Impacts
β’ Remittances boost economy: India received over $100 billion recently.
β’ Employment generation abroad: Eases pressure on local job markets.
β’ Skill transfer: Returnees bring global expertise (e.g., IT professionals).
β’ Improved living standards: Better access to health and education.
β’ Cultural exposure: Enhances language, awareness, global ties.
β’ Diplomatic leverage: Diaspora strengthens Indiaβs global influence.
β Negative Impacts
β’ Brain drain: Skilled youth, especially STEM grads, migrate.
β’ Family disruption: Long separation causes emotional stress.
β’ Regional imbalance: Punjab, Kerala over-dependent on remittances.
β’ Worker exploitation: Many face wage theft, legal issues abroad.
β’ Remittance dependency: Economic shocks like COVID-19 hit hard.
β’ Cultural erosion: Identity conflicts among migrant youth.
#geography #society
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πMigration brings economic benefits but also social challenges.
β Positive Impacts
β’ Remittances boost economy: India received over $100 billion recently.
β’ Employment generation abroad: Eases pressure on local job markets.
β’ Skill transfer: Returnees bring global expertise (e.g., IT professionals).
β’ Improved living standards: Better access to health and education.
β’ Cultural exposure: Enhances language, awareness, global ties.
β’ Diplomatic leverage: Diaspora strengthens Indiaβs global influence.
β Negative Impacts
β’ Brain drain: Skilled youth, especially STEM grads, migrate.
β’ Family disruption: Long separation causes emotional stress.
β’ Regional imbalance: Punjab, Kerala over-dependent on remittances.
β’ Worker exploitation: Many face wage theft, legal issues abroad.
β’ Remittance dependency: Economic shocks like COVID-19 hit hard.
β’ Cultural erosion: Identity conflicts among migrant youth.
#geography #society
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β€2
π Crushed Stone on Farms: A New Carbon Capture Tool
π Whatβs happening?
β Crushed rock like basalt is being spread on farms globally β including India β to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide
β The process is called Enhanced Rock Weathering (ERW)
β It accelerates natural weathering, where rocks break down by rain and bind carbon as bicarbonate
β Carbon stored this way can be locked into soils or eventually become limestone
π How it works
β Basalt rock is ground finely to increase surface area
β Rainwater triggers chemical reactions, forming carbonic acid which breaks down rocks
β This reaction traps COβ from the air or soil as carbonate compounds
π Why it matters
β Potential to offset emissions by capturing COβ from tech firms, airlines, fashion companies
β Improves soil alkalinity, boosting crop yields
β Helps reduce acidification of rivers and seas
β Scientists caution that exact impact varies β trials in Australia showed mixed results
π Challenges
β Measurement difficulties: Cations released during weathering can interfere
β Not fully mature: Still a nascent technology with evolving research
β Risk of release of heavy metals if not monitored properly
β Requires protective gear for workers
#GS3 #Environment #ClimateChange #CarbonCapture #ERW #Agriculture #Prelims2025 #UPSCNotes
π Whatβs happening?
β Crushed rock like basalt is being spread on farms globally β including India β to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide
β The process is called Enhanced Rock Weathering (ERW)
β It accelerates natural weathering, where rocks break down by rain and bind carbon as bicarbonate
β Carbon stored this way can be locked into soils or eventually become limestone
π How it works
β Basalt rock is ground finely to increase surface area
β Rainwater triggers chemical reactions, forming carbonic acid which breaks down rocks
β This reaction traps COβ from the air or soil as carbonate compounds
π Why it matters
β Potential to offset emissions by capturing COβ from tech firms, airlines, fashion companies
β Improves soil alkalinity, boosting crop yields
β Helps reduce acidification of rivers and seas
β Scientists caution that exact impact varies β trials in Australia showed mixed results
π Challenges
β Measurement difficulties: Cations released during weathering can interfere
β Not fully mature: Still a nascent technology with evolving research
β Risk of release of heavy metals if not monitored properly
β Requires protective gear for workers
π Prelims Question
Q. What is the main goal of Enhanced Rock Weathering (ERW)?
(a) Increasing soil nitrogen content
(b) Boosting water retention in soil
(c) Capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide β
(d) Improving crop resistance to pests
π Mains Question (GS3 β Environment)
Q. What is Enhanced Rock Weathering (ERW) and how does it contribute to carbon sequestration? Discuss its scientific basis, benefits, and limitations as a climate change mitigation tool.
#GS3 #Environment #ClimateChange #CarbonCapture #ERW #Agriculture #Prelims2025 #UPSCNotes
β€8π1
π India Adds 3,582 km to Coastline & 7 New Islands
πA new reassessment using improved tech has increased Indiaβs official coastline length by ~50%
β Previous coastline (1970s): 7,516 km
β New official length: 11,058.6 km
β Reason: Higher-resolution data (1:25000 map scale vs older 1:45000)
β 3,582 km βaddedβ due to better capture of curves, bends & offshore island coastlines
β 7 new offshore islands identified; total island count now 1,389 (1,298 offshore + 91 inshore)
β Coastline measurement now to be done every 10 years
πState-wise highest coastline
β Gujarat (2,340 km), Andaman & Nicobar (3,083 km), Tamil Nadu (1,068 km)
πImplications
β Better disaster management, CRZ rules, coastal zone protection
β Improved planning for shipping, security, and tourism
β Reclassification will not affect boundaries, only accuracy
#GS1 #Geography #Coastline #Mapping
πA new reassessment using improved tech has increased Indiaβs official coastline length by ~50%
β Previous coastline (1970s): 7,516 km
β New official length: 11,058.6 km
β Reason: Higher-resolution data (1:25000 map scale vs older 1:45000)
β 3,582 km βaddedβ due to better capture of curves, bends & offshore island coastlines
β 7 new offshore islands identified; total island count now 1,389 (1,298 offshore + 91 inshore)
β Coastline measurement now to be done every 10 years
πState-wise highest coastline
β Gujarat (2,340 km), Andaman & Nicobar (3,083 km), Tamil Nadu (1,068 km)
πImplications
β Better disaster management, CRZ rules, coastal zone protection
β Improved planning for shipping, security, and tourism
β Reclassification will not affect boundaries, only accuracy
π Prelims Question:
Which state has the longest coastline in India as per the revised measurements?
(a) Maharashtra
(b) Tamil Nadu
(c) Gujarat β
(d) Andhra Pradesh
π Mains Question:
Explain the significance of scientific reassessment of coastline and islands in Indiaβs disaster management and developmental planning.
#GS1 #Geography #Coastline #Mapping
β€9π1
π Earthβs Oldest Rocks Found in Quebec, Canada
π Researchers identify Earthβs oldest-known rocks
β Located along Hudson Bay in Quebec, Canada
β Rocks belong to Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt
β Dated to 4.16 billion years ago, from the Hadean Eon
β Rocks are metamorphosed volcanic rocks of basaltic composition
β Formed from magma intrusions, which cooled & solidified underground
β Provide rare insights into Earthβs earliest crust formation
β Help decode conditions during the Hadean, a time with little physical evidence
β Previous record: 4.03 billion-year-old rocks from Northwest Territories, Canada
π Source: Reuters | Study published in journal Science
#Geography #GS1
π Researchers identify Earthβs oldest-known rocks
β Located along Hudson Bay in Quebec, Canada
β Rocks belong to Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt
β Dated to 4.16 billion years ago, from the Hadean Eon
β Rocks are metamorphosed volcanic rocks of basaltic composition
β Formed from magma intrusions, which cooled & solidified underground
β Provide rare insights into Earthβs earliest crust formation
β Help decode conditions during the Hadean, a time with little physical evidence
β Previous record: 4.03 billion-year-old rocks from Northwest Territories, Canada
π Source: Reuters | Study published in journal Science
π Prelims Question:ο»Ώ
Which geological formation was recently found to contain Earthβs oldest-known rocks?
A. Canadian Shield
B. Appalachian Belt
C. Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt β
D. Laurentian Plateau
π Mains Question:
Discuss the significance of the discovery of 4.16-billion-year-old rocks in Quebec for understanding early Earth history and the formation of the planetβs crust.
#Geography #GS1
β€9π1π€―1
π Melting Himalayan Glaciers: Cascading Effects on Indiaβs Water Resources
(UPSC 2020, 2013)
β Accelerated glacial melt, driven by climate change, threatens Indiaβs water security
β Himalayan glaciers feed Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus β vital for agriculture, hydropower, and drinking water
β Initial melt may cause flooding (e.g., Uttarakhand 2013)
β Long-term effects: reduced river flows during dry seasons
β May trigger:
β’ Water shortages
β’ Crop failures
β’ Interstate water conflicts
β’ Decline in groundwater recharge, esp. in Indo-Gangetic Plain
β’ Disrupted monsoons β strain on water systems
π Urgent need for:
β‘οΈ Sustainable adaptation strategies
β‘οΈ Efficient water management practices
#geography
#mains
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(UPSC 2020, 2013)
β Accelerated glacial melt, driven by climate change, threatens Indiaβs water security
β Himalayan glaciers feed Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus β vital for agriculture, hydropower, and drinking water
β Initial melt may cause flooding (e.g., Uttarakhand 2013)
β Long-term effects: reduced river flows during dry seasons
β May trigger:
β’ Water shortages
β’ Crop failures
β’ Interstate water conflicts
β’ Decline in groundwater recharge, esp. in Indo-Gangetic Plain
β’ Disrupted monsoons β strain on water systems
π Urgent need for:
β‘οΈ Sustainable adaptation strategies
β‘οΈ Efficient water management practices
#geography
#mains
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@Mapping_prelims_mains
β€5
π Why Large Cities Attract More Migrants than Smaller Towns
π A Developing Country Perspective β UPSC 2024
π Migration is skewed towards big cities due to:
β Diverse & abundant employment in formal/informal sectors
β’ Example: Mumbai & Bengaluru attract rural youth in tech, finance, construction
β Better access to education & healthcare
β’ Example: Delhiβs DU and AIIMS draw families for advancement
β Superior infrastructure & logistics
β’ Example: Metro, airports, 24Γ7 power in Chennai enhance urban appeal
β Urban informal economy absorbs unskilled labor
β’ Example: Bihar & UP migrants work in Mumbaiβs construction/domestic sectors
β Presence of migrant networks & support systems
β’ Example: Malayali migrants in Kochi facilitate Gulf migration links
β Urban aspirations & perceived mobility
β’ Example: Media portrayals of progress create a strong βpull effectβ
#GS1 #geography
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π A Developing Country Perspective β UPSC 2024
π Migration is skewed towards big cities due to:
β Diverse & abundant employment in formal/informal sectors
β’ Example: Mumbai & Bengaluru attract rural youth in tech, finance, construction
β Better access to education & healthcare
β’ Example: Delhiβs DU and AIIMS draw families for advancement
β Superior infrastructure & logistics
β’ Example: Metro, airports, 24Γ7 power in Chennai enhance urban appeal
β Urban informal economy absorbs unskilled labor
β’ Example: Bihar & UP migrants work in Mumbaiβs construction/domestic sectors
β Presence of migrant networks & support systems
β’ Example: Malayali migrants in Kochi facilitate Gulf migration links
β Urban aspirations & perceived mobility
β’ Example: Media portrayals of progress create a strong βpull effectβ
ο»Ώ
π Mains GS1 Question
Explain the economic and socio-cultural factors that make large Indian cities preferred migration destinations compared to smaller towns.
#GS1 #geography
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β€4π1
π Agra to Host South Asiaβs First Global Potato Research Centre
Source: The Hindu, June 27
π Union Cabinet clears regional wing of Peru-based International Potato Center (CIP) in Agra
β To be called CIP-South Asia Regional Centre (CSARC) at Singna, Agra
β India will access the largest global germplasm collection for potato & sweet potato
β Objective: Boost farmersβ income, nutrition security & climate-resilient crops
β CSARC to focus on disease-free, climate-resilient, processing-grade tubers
β Project cost: βΉ171 crore (India: βΉ111.5 cr; CIP: βΉ59.5 cr)
β Will reduce import of seed potatoes & help local agro-industries
β Potatoes are the 3rd most consumed food globally; sweet potato is 6th
β India is 2nd largest producer & consumer of potatoes (after China)
β Indiaβs yield: 25 T/ha (potential: 50 T/ha); low due to poor seed quality
#Agriculture #GS3
Source: The Hindu, June 27
π Union Cabinet clears regional wing of Peru-based International Potato Center (CIP) in Agra
β To be called CIP-South Asia Regional Centre (CSARC) at Singna, Agra
β India will access the largest global germplasm collection for potato & sweet potato
β Objective: Boost farmersβ income, nutrition security & climate-resilient crops
β CSARC to focus on disease-free, climate-resilient, processing-grade tubers
β Project cost: βΉ171 crore (India: βΉ111.5 cr; CIP: βΉ59.5 cr)
β Will reduce import of seed potatoes & help local agro-industries
β Potatoes are the 3rd most consumed food globally; sweet potato is 6th
β India is 2nd largest producer & consumer of potatoes (after China)
β Indiaβs yield: 25 T/ha (potential: 50 T/ha); low due to poor seed quality
π Prelims Question:
Which of the following statements is correct about the proposed Global Potato Centre in Agra?
A. It is an initiative of ICAR only
B. It focuses only on table potato exports
C. It will be a regional centre of a Peru-based institute β
D. It will be set up in Bihar
π Mains Question:
Highlight the importance of setting up the Global Potato Research Centre in Agra for food security, agri-diversification, and climate resilience in India.
#Agriculture #GS3
β€3π1
π Monsoon Covers India Early: What Enabled the June Surge?
π Monsoon covered entire India by June 29 β 9 days early; only 10th time since 1960
β Early onset in Kerala (May 24) + rapid northward spread aided early coverage
β Main driver: Low Pressure Systems pulling in moisture-laden winds
β Boosted by Active MJO Phase β enhanced cloud activity from equator
β Neutral ENSO & IOD Phase kept oceanic conditions stable for rainfall
β June rainfall was 8% above normal; central India got 24.8% surplus
β Rainfall deficit removed for the first time since 2022
β NE states like Manipur & Mizoram got record June rainfall
β Below-normal rains still affected parts of east & peninsular India
#GS1 #IndianMonsoon #geography
π Monsoon covered entire India by June 29 β 9 days early; only 10th time since 1960
β Early onset in Kerala (May 24) + rapid northward spread aided early coverage
β Main driver: Low Pressure Systems pulling in moisture-laden winds
β Boosted by Active MJO Phase β enhanced cloud activity from equator
β Neutral ENSO & IOD Phase kept oceanic conditions stable for rainfall
β June rainfall was 8% above normal; central India got 24.8% surplus
β Rainfall deficit removed for the first time since 2022
β NE states like Manipur & Mizoram got record June rainfall
β Below-normal rains still affected parts of east & peninsular India
π Prelims Question:
Which of the following best explains the early national coverage of monsoon in 2025?
(a) Strong El NiΓ±o phase
(b) High-pressure systems over land
(c) Active MJO & low-pressure systems β
(d) Subtropical westerlies
π Mains GS1 Question:
Explain how low-pressure systems and Madden-Julian Oscillation contribute to rapid monsoon advancement across India.
#GS1 #IndianMonsoon #geography
πCook Islands
πPolitical Status:
β A self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. It was formerly a dependent New Zealand colony from 1901 to 1965.
β Citizens of the Cook Islands are also citizens of New Zealand.
β Administrative Centre: Avarua, located on the island of Rarotonga.
β Geography: Situated in Polynesia, Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean.
Located northeast of New Zealand, between American Samoa and French Polynesia.
β It comprises 15 islands, formed by volcanic activity, with a total land area of approximately 236.7 sq km.
πPolitical Status:
β A self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. It was formerly a dependent New Zealand colony from 1901 to 1965.
β Citizens of the Cook Islands are also citizens of New Zealand.
β Administrative Centre: Avarua, located on the island of Rarotonga.
β Geography: Situated in Polynesia, Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean.
Located northeast of New Zealand, between American Samoa and French Polynesia.
β It comprises 15 islands, formed by volcanic activity, with a total land area of approximately 236.7 sq km.